Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence

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Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence

Adolescence

Adolescents try on one face after another, seeking to find a face of their own. Their generation of young people is the fragile cable by which the best and the worst of their parents’ generation is transmitted to the present. In the end, there are only two lasting bequests parents can leave youth—one is roots, the other wings. This section contains two chapters: “Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence” and “Socioemotional Development in Adolescence.”

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chapter 11
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
chapter outline

1 The Nature of Adolescence

Learning Goal 1  Discuss the nature of adolescence.

2 Physical Changes

Learning Goal 2  Describe the changes involved in puberty, as well as changes in the brain and sexuality during adolescence.

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Puberty

The Brain

Adolescent Sexuality

3 Issues in Adolescent Health

Learning Goal 3  Identify adolescent problems related to health, substance use and abuse, and eating disorders.

Adolescent Health

Substance Use and Abuse

Eating Disorders

4 Adolescent Cognition

Learning Goal 4  Explain cognitive changes in adolescence.

Piaget’s Theory

Adolescent Egocentrism

Information Processing

5 Schools

Learning Goal 5  Summarize some key aspects of how schools influence adolescent development.

The Transition to Middle or Junior High School

Effective Schools for Young Adolescents

High School

Extracurricular Activities

Service Learning

image1 ©Image Source/Getty Images

Fifteen-year-old Latisha developed Page 338a drinking problem, and she was kicked off the cheerleading squad for missing too many practice sessions—but that didn’t make her stop drinking. She and her friends began skipping school regularly so they could drink. Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence

Fourteen-year-old Arnie is a juvenile delinquent. Last week he stole a TV set, struck his mother and bloodied her face, broke some streetlights in the neighborhood, and threatened a boy with a wrench and hammer.

Twelve-year-old Katie, more than just about anything else, wanted a playground in her town. She knew that the other kids also wanted one, so she put together a group that generated funding ideas for the playground. They presented their ideas to the town council. Her group attracted more youth, and they raised money by selling candy and sandwiches door-to-door. The playground became a reality, a place where, as Katie says, “People have picnics and make friends.” Katie’s advice: “You won’t get anywhere if you don’t try.”

Adolescents like Latisha and Arnie are the ones we hear about the most. But there are many adolescents like Katie who contribute in positive ways to their communities and competently make the transition through adolescence. Indeed, for most young people, adolescence is not a time of rebellion, crisis, pathology, and deviance. A far more accurate vision of adolescence is that it is a time of evaluation, decision making, commitment, and carving out a place in the world. Most of the problems of today’s youth are not with the youth themselves, but with needs that go unmet. To reach their full potential, adolescents need a range of legitimate opportunities as well as long-term support from adults who care deeply about them (Miller & Cho, 2018; Ogden & Haden, 2019)Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence.

Katie Bell (front) and some of her volunteers.  ©Ronald Cortes

topical connections looking back

In middle and late childhood, physical growth continues but at a slower pace than in infancy and early childhood. Gross motor skills become much smoother and more coordinated, and fine motor skills also improve. Significant advances in the development of the prefrontal cortex occur. Cognitive and language skills also improve considerably. In terms of cognitive development, most children become concrete operational thinkers, long-term memory increases, and metacognitive skills improve, especially if children learn a rich repertoire of strategies. In terms of language development, children’s understanding of grammar and syntax increases, and learning to read becomes an important achievement.

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Adolescence is a transitional period in the human life span, linking childhood and adulthood Page 339. We begin the chapter by examining some general characteristics of adolescence and then explore the major physical changes and health issues of adolescence. Next, we consider the significant cognitive changes that characterize adolescence and conclude the chapter by describing various aspects of schools for adolescents.

1 The Nature of Adolescence

LG1 Discuss the nature of adolescence.

As in development during childhood, genetic/biological and environmental/social factors influence adolescent development. During their childhood years, adolescents experienced thousands of hours of interactions with parents, peers, and teachers, but now they face dramatic biological changes, new experiences, and new developmental tasks. Relationships with parents take a different form, moments with peers become more intimate, and dating occurs for the first time, as do sexual exploration and possibly intercourse. The adolescent’s thoughts become more abstract and idealistic. Biological changes trigger a heightened interest in body image. Adolescence has both continuity and discontinuity with childhood.

There is a long history of worrying about how adolescents will “turn out.” In 1904, G. Stanley Hall proposed the “storm-and-stress” view that adolescence is a turbulent time charged with conflict and mood swings. However, when Daniel Offer and his colleagues (1988) studied the self-images of adolescents in the United States, Australia, Bangladesh, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Japan, Taiwan, Turkey, and West Germany, at least 73 percent of the adolescents displayed a healthy self-image. Although there were differences among them, the adolescents were happy most of the time, they enjoyed life, they perceived themselves as able to exercise self-control, they valued work and school, they felt confident about their sexual selves, they expressed positive feelings toward their families, and they felt they had the capability to cope with life’s stresses—not exactly a storm-and-stress portrayal of adolescence.

Public attitudes about adolescence emerge from a combination of personal experience and media portrayals, neither of which produces an objective picture of how normal adolescents develop (Feldman & Elliott, 1990)Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence. Some of the readiness to assume the worst about adolescents likely involves the short memories of adults. Many adults measure their current perceptions of adolescents by their memories of their own adolescence. Adults may portray today’s adolescents as more troubled, less respectful, more self-centered, more assertive, and more adventurous than they were.

image3Growing up has never been easy. However, adolescence is not best viewed as a time of rebellion, crisis, pathology, and deviance. A far more accurate vision of adolescence describes it as a time of evaluation, of decision making, of commitment, and of carving out a place in the world. Most of the problems of today’s youth are not with the youth themselves. What adolescents need is access to a range of legitimate opportunities and to long-term support from adults who care deeply about them. What might be some examples of such support and caring?  ©Regine Mahaux/The Image Bank/Getty Images

However, in matters of taste and manners, the young people Page 340of every generation have seemed unnervingly radical and different from adults—different in how they look, in how they behave, in the music they enjoy, in their hairstyles, and in the clothing they choose. It would be an enormous error, though, to confuse adolescents’ enthusiasm for trying on new identities and enjoying moderate amounts of outrageous behavior with hostility toward parental and societal standards. Acting out and boundary testing are time-honored ways in which adolescents move toward accepting, rather than rejecting, parental values.

Negative stereotyping of adolescence has been extensive (Jiang & others, 2018; Petersen & others, 2017). However, much of the negative stereotyping has been fueled by media reports of a visible minority of adolescents. In the last decade there has been a call for adults to have a more positive attitude toward youth and emphasize their positive development. Indeed, researchers have found that a majority of adolescents are making the transition from childhood through adolescence to adulthood in a positive way (Seider, Jayawickreme, & Lerner, 2017). For example, a recent study of non-Latino White and African American 12- to 20-year-olds in the United States found that they were characterized much more by positive than problematic development, even in their most vulnerable times (Gutman & others, 2017). Their engagement in healthy behaviors, supportive relationships with parents and friends, and positive self-perceptions were much stronger than their angry and depressed feelings.

©RubberBall Productions/Getty Images

Although most adolescents negotiate the lengthy path to adult maturity successfully, too large a group does not. Ethnic, cultural, gender, socioeconomic, age, and lifestyle differences influence the actual life trajectory of each adolescent (Green & others, 2018; Hadley, 2018; Kimmel & Aronson, 2018; McQueen, 2017; Ruck, Peterson-Badali, & Freeman, 2017). Different portrayals of adolescence emerge, depending on the particular group of adolescents being described. Today’s adolescents are exposed to a complex menu of lifestyle options through the media, and many face the temptations of drug use and sexual activity at increasingly young ages (Johnston & others, 2018). Too many adolescents are not provided with adequate opportunities and support to become competent adults (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 2018; Edalati & Nicholls, 2018; Lo & others, 2017; Loria & Caughy, 2018; Miller & Cho, 2018; Umana-Taylor & Douglass, 2017).

Recall that social policy is the course of action designed by the national government to influence the welfare of its citizens. Currently, many researchers in adolescent development are designing studies that they hope will lead to wise and effective social policy decision making (Duncan, Magnuson, & Votruba-Drzal, 2017; Galinsky & others, 2017; Hall, 2017).

Research indicates that youth benefit enormously when they have caring adults in their lives in addition to parents or guardians (Frydenberg, 2019; Masten, 2017; Masten & Kalstabakken, 2018; Ogden & Hagen, 2019; Pomerantz & Grolnick, 2017). Caring adults—such as coaches, neighbors, teachers, mentors, and after-school leaders—can serve as role models, confidants, advocates, and resources. Relationships with caring adults are powerful when youth know they are respected, that they matter to the adult, and that the adult wants to be a resource in their lives. However, in a survey, only 20 percent of U.S. 15-year-olds reported having meaningful relationships with adults outside their family who were helping them to succeed in life (Search Institute, 2010)Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence.

Review Connect Reflect

LG1 Discuss the nature of adolescence.

Review

· What characterizes adolescent development? What especially needs to be done to improve the lives of adolescents?

Connect

· In this section you read about how important it is for adolescents to have caring adults in their lives. In previous chapters, what did you learn about the role parents play in their children’s lives leading up to adolescence that might influence adolescents’ development?

Reflect Your Own Personal Journey of Life

· Was your adolescence better described as a stormy and stressful time or as one of trying out new identities as you sought to find an identity of your own? Explain.

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2 Physical Changes

LG2 Describe the changes involved in puberty, as well as changes in the brain and sexuality during adolescence.

Puberty

The Brain

Adolescent Sexuality

One father remarked that the problem with his teenage son was not that he grew, but that he did not know when to stop growing. As we will see, there is considerable variation in the timing of the adolescent growth spurt. In addition to pubertal changes, other physical changes we will explore involve sexuality and the brain.

PUBERTY

Puberty is not the same as adolescence. For most of us, puberty ends long before adolescence does, although puberty is the most important marker of the beginning of adolescence.

Puberty  is a brain-neuroendocrine process occurring primarily in early adolescence that provides stimulation for the rapid physical changes that take place during this period of development (Berenbaum, Beltz, & Corley, 2015; Shalitin & Kiess, 2017; Susman & Dorn, 2013). Puberty is not a single, sudden event. We know whether a young boy or girl is going through puberty, but pinpointing puberty’s beginning and end is difficult. Among the most noticeable changes are signs of sexual maturation and increases in height and weight.

Sexual Maturation, Height, and Weight Think back to the onset of your puberty. Of the striking changes that were taking place in your body, what was the first to occur? Researchers have found that male pubertal characteristics typically develop in this order: increase in penis and testicle size, appearance of straight pubic hair, minor voice change, first ejaculation (which usually occurs through masturbation or a wet dream), appearance of kinky pubic hair, onset of maximum growth in height and weight, growth of hair in armpits, more detectable voice changes, and, finally, growth of facial hair.

What is the order of appearance of physical changes in females? First, either the breasts enlarge or pubic hair appears. Later, hair appears in the armpits. As these changes occur, the female grows in height and her hips become wider than her shoulders.  Menarche —a girl’s first menstruation—comes rather late in the pubertal cycle. Initially, her menstrual cycles may be highly irregular. For the first several years, she may not ovulate every menstrual cycle; some girls do not ovulate at all until a year or two after menstruation begins. No voice changes comparable to those in pubertal males occur in pubertal females. By the end of puberty, the female’s breasts have become more fully rounded.

Marked weight gains coincide with the onset of puberty. During early adolescence, girls tend to outweigh boys, but by about age 14 boys begin to surpass girls. Similarly, at the beginning of the adolescent period, girls tend to be as tall as or taller than boys of their age, but by the end of the middle school years most boys have caught up or, in many cases, surpassed girls in height.

As indicated in  Figure 1 , the growth spurt occurs approximately two years earlier for girls than for boys. The mean age at the beginning of the growth spurt in girls is 9; for boys, it is 11. The peak rate of pubertal change occurs at 11½ years for girls and 13½ years for boys. During their growth spurt, girls increase in height about 3½ inches per year, boys about 4 inches. Boys and girls who are shorter or taller than their peers before adolescence are likely to remain so during adolescence; however, as much as 30 percent of an individual’s height in late adolescence is unexplained by his or her height in the elementary school years Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence.

image5 FIGURE 1 PUBERTAL GROWTH SPURT. On average, the peak of the growth spurt during puberty occurs two years earlier for girls (11½) than for boys (13½). How are hormones related to the growth spurt and to the difference between the average height of adolescent boys and that of girls?

Is age of pubertal onset linked to how tall boys and girls will be toward the end of adolescence? One study found that for girls, earlier onset of menarche, breast development, and growth spurt were linked to shorter height at 18 years of age; however, for boys, earlier age of growth spurt and slower progression through puberty were associated with being taller at 18 years of age (Yousefi & others, 2013).

Hormonal Changes Behind the first whisker in boys and the widening of hips in girls is a flood of  hormones , powerful chemical substances secreted by the endocrine glands and carried through the body by the bloodstream.

The concentrations of certain hormones Page 342increase dramatically during adolescence (Berenbaum, Beltz, & Corley, 2015; Herting & Sowell, 2017; Nguyen, 2018; Piekarski & others, 2017). Testosterone is a hormone associated in boys with genital development, increased height, and deepening of the voice. Estradiol is a type of estrogen that in girls is associated with breast, uterine, and skeletal development. In one study, testosterone levels increased eighteenfold in boys but only twofold in girls during puberty; estradiol increased eightfold in girls but only twofold in boys (Nottelmann & others, 1987). Thus, both testosterone and estradiol are present in the hormonal makeup of both boys and girls, but testosterone dominates in male pubertal development, estradiol in female pubertal development (Benyi & Savendahl, 2017). A study of 9- to 17-year-old boys found that testosterone levels peaked at 17 years of age (Khairullah & others, 2014)Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence.

The same influx of hormones that grows hair on a male’s chest and increases the fatty tissue in a female’s breasts may also contribute to psychological development in adolescence (Berenbaum, Beltz, & Corley, 2015; Wang & others, 2017). In one study of boys and girls ranging in age from 9 to 14, a higher concentration of testosterone was present in boys who rated themselves as more socially competent (Nottelmann & others, 1987). However, a research review concluded that there is insufficient quality research to confirm that changing testosterone levels during puberty are linked to mood and behavior in adolescent males (Duke, Balzer, & Steinbeck, 2014). And hormonal effects by themselves do not account for adolescent development (Susman & Dorn, 2013). For example, in one study, social factors were much better predictors of young adolescent girls’ depression and anger than hormonal factors (Brooks-Gunn & Warren, 1989). Behavior and moods also can affect hormones (DeRose & Brooks-Gunn, 2008). Stress, eating patterns, exercise, sexual activity, tension, and depression can activate or suppress various aspects of the hormonal system (Marceau, Dorn, & Susman, 2012). In sum, the hormone-behavior link is complex (Susman & Dorn, 2013).

Timing and Variations in Puberty In the United States—where children mature up to a year earlier than children in European countries—the average age of menarche has declined significantly since the mid-nineteenth century (see  Figure 2 ). Also, recent studies in Korea and Japan (Cole & Mori, 2018)Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence, China (Song & others, 2017), and Saudi Arabia (Al Alwan & others, 2017) found that pubertal onset has been occurring earlier in recent years. Fortunately, however, we are unlikely to see pubescent toddlers, since what has happened in the past century is likely the result of improved nutrition and health.

image6 FIGURE 2 AGE AT MENARCHE IN NORTHERN EUROPEAN COUNTRIES AND THE UNITED STATES IN THE NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES. Notice the steep decline in the age at which girls experienced menarche in four northern European countries and the United States from 1845 to 1969. Recently the age at which girls experience menarche has been leveling off.

Why do the changes of puberty occur when they do, and how can variations in their timing be explained? The basic genetic program for puberty is wired into the species (Day & others, 2017; Kiess & others, 2016). Weight also is linked to pubertal onset. A cross-cultural study in 29 countries found that childhood obesity was linked to early puberty in girls (Currie & others, 2012). And a study of Chinese girls confirmed that childhood obesity contributed to an earlier onset of puberty (Zhai & others, 2015).

Experiences that are linked to earlier pubertal onset include nutrition, an urban environment, low socioeconomic status, adoption, father absence, family conflict, maternal harshness, child maltreatment, and early substance use (Bratke & others, 2017). For example, a recent study found that child sexual abuse was linked to earlier pubertal onset (Noll & others, 2017)Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence. In many cases, puberty comes months earlier in these situations, and this earlier onset of puberty is likely explained by high rates of conflict and stress in these social contexts.

Assessing and Planning Care for an Elderly Person

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In order to gain an insight into the world of elder adults, it is important to understand how they view themselves and the values they hold. Additionally it is important to assess and determine his/her needs and establish appropriate interventions for this individual.

By the due date assigned, choose an older adult to interview. This cannot be a patient in your clinical setting. You can use a friend, family member, or co-worker. The older adult should be 65 years or older. Use the format provided to record the responses. A list of questions is available for you to start with. Include 2–3 questions of your own to get a complete picture of the older adult. Summarize your findings and also contrast the responses with findings in your readings and other current literature.

Download a patient questionnaire (SEE ATTACHED DOCUMENT). This form should be used as an example.

After gaining permission, conduct a physical and mental functional assessment of the older adult you have chosen. Review your readings for the process of functional assessment.

Make use of the tools discussed this week to complete a comprehensive assessment of your patient. Search the Internet for resources on these tools.

  1. Tinetti Balance and Gait Evaluation
  2. Katz Index of Activities of Daily Living
  3. Assessment of Home Safety
  4. The Barthel Index

Make sure the older adult is clearly identified on the tools. Do not include their name, but do include professional or other designation, and age. Your name should also be identified on the tool. (This should be a part of your Appendix.)

Compare and contrast the age-related changes of the older person you interviewed and assessed with those identified in this week’s reading assignment. During this data analysis process provide at least 4–6 preliminary issues that you have identified. Identify three alterations in health that you would propose and describe them. Identify a minimum of three comprehensive interventions for each problem.

Make sure that you integrate personal cultural awareness and cultural competency.

Paper should be 5–6 pages, not including the questionnaire or tools used. These should be attached as an Appendix. Remember to use headings to identify the different sections in your paper.

On a separate references page, cite all sources using APA format.

  • Use this APA Citation Helper as a convenient reference for properly citing resources.
  • This handout will provide you the details of formatting your essay using APA style.
  • You may create your essay in this APA-formatted template.

Submission Details

  • Name your document _………………W2_A2_LastName_FirstInitial.doc.
  • Submit your document to the Submissions Area by the due date assigned.  

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in Film

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in Film

Instructions

View a film where the main character meets some ultimate goal (self-actualization). Excellent examples:Cast Away, American Beauty Pursuit of Happiness, Field of Dreams, The Sandlot, The Blindside, We Bought a Zoo. Each film depicts Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs through the character’s struggles.

Construct an essay regarding the use of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in film. Include the following concepts and perspectives:

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  1. In your own words describe the five levels present in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
  2. Analyze how the main character progressed through the levels of needs outlined in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
  3. Identify specific moments when the character is being motivated intrinsically and extrinsically and how those moments contribute to their overall success. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in Film
  4. Utilize one theory of emotion in exploring how emotions motivate the individual.

For example, after viewing the film American Beauty, describe the transformation of Lester Burnham from an empty man to being a self-actualized individual. In the film Cast Away, demonstrate which needs Chuck Noland attempted to address when he first arrived on the island? How did he accomplish meeting those needs? How did Chuck progress through the Hierarchy of Needs?

Requirements

Your assignment should be a minimum 400 words of text (not including of any references or heading information such as name, date, course number, etc.)Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs in Film.

Important for nurses and members of other health care teams to develop an understanding of CAM, traditional medicine, holistic health, and spirituality

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Prepare a PowerPoint presentation of 8–10 slides that explains why an understanding of complimentary alternative medicine (CAM) and spirituality is important for members of health care teams; examines the ethical, legal, and financial principles related to CAM and spirituality; and describes how these forms of health care can impact plans of action. 

Preparation

Your organization has seen an increase in the number of individuals using complimentary alternative medicine (CAM), traditional medicine, holistic health, and spirituality. In addition to your work on the interdisciplinary team, you have been asked by your organization to prepare and deliver an educational session on CAM, traditional medicine, holistic health, and spirituality that can be used by all health care teams. How will you complete this task?

You should focus on these concepts as they pertain to your population (from the Windshield Survey assessment), but also in a broader sense. Use the Capella library and the Internet to look for recent research articles or information on these topics to use as supporting resources in your assessment.

Requirements

For this assessment, prepare a PowerPoint presentation in which you:

  • Identify the topics you will cover in your educational plan.
  • Provide a list of resources your audience can use to further their understanding of complimentary alternative medicine (CAM).
  • Explain why it is important for nurses and members of other health care teams to develop an understanding of CAM, traditional medicine, holistic health, and spirituality.
  • Examine any ethical, legal, and economic principles related to CAM, traditional medicine, holistic health, and spirituality.
  • Describe how these forms of health care can affect a plan of action for individuals and populations.

Your presentation should include a slide with the title of your educational session, a slide with the topics that will be covered (your agenda), and a reference slide at the end. Use the notes section of each slide to provide additional information on each topic, along with supporting references. References and in-text citations must adhere to APA guidelines.

Additional Requirements

  • Include a title slide and reference slide. The completed assessment should be 8–10 slides in length, not including the title slide and reference slide.
  • Reference at least three current scholarly or professional resources.
  • Use current APA format for references.
  • Be creative!

Attached in an example of a well graded power point for this assignment. 

Discussion Behaviorism And Neo-behaviorism

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Discussion Behaviorism And Neo-behaviorism

Identify one Russian or American Behaviorist or Neobehaviorist psychologist from this unit’s assigned readings.

· Analyze and summarize the individual’s major contributions to scientific or psychological thought.

· Explain how the individual’s ideas adhere to associationism, comparative psychology, objective psychology, physiological psychology, classical conditioning, behaviorism, neobehaviorism, materialism, hereditarism, environmentalism, purposive behaviorism, operationism, hypothetico-deductive system, applied behavior analysis, or radical behaviorism system of thought. Discussion Behaviorism And Neo-behaviorism

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Assignment 2 Due Thursday 25 by Midnight CST

Each student will locate and read a peer-reviewed journal article found in the Park McAfee Online Library and published within the past five years that relates to the main points found in this unit’s assigned chapters.
Each student will summarize the article and provide the URL link to where it is located; identify any relationship between the research article and the main points of the assigned chapters; and discuss how it relates to any main point(s) in this unit’s assigned chapters. Article abstracts are not sufficient for analysis of relationships between the article and the assigned readings historical ideas main points. You must read the entire article to come to your conclusions.

Assignment 3 Due Thursday 25 by Midnight CST

Each student will write a research paper that discusses the development of scientific thought starting with the writings of the ancient Greek philosophers.
The student will move forward while critically analyzing: Modern Science, Empiricism, Sensationalism, Positivism, Rationalism, Romanticism, Existentialism, Physiology, Experimental Psychology, Voluntarism, Structuralism, Evolution, Functionalism, Behaviorism, Neobehaviorism, Gestalt Psychology, Psychoanalysis, & Humanism (19 categories)Discussion Behaviorism And Neo-behaviorism.
The student will then discuss how the traditional schools and systems of psychology have influenced contemporary psychology and in turn affect the application of treatment.
The student also needs to address the ethics and values that have developed with the philosophical thought of human behavior.
The student will look at the role that contemporary psychology plays in different cutltures.
This paper will need to be written in APA style and will need at least 14 references from professional journals. Other references can be obtained from the internet or other means. This paper will be worth up to 200 points. The minimum word count required for the Core Assessment paper is 2700 words.

Paper Must: Differences and similarities between 3 or more schools or systems of psychology were outlined in comparison to the literature. Paper contains 15 or more references from the literature. The references were consistent with the topic being examined in the research paper.

The student identified how 3 or more schools and systems of psychology influenced contemporary psychology and the application of the arguable claim. The student addressed how ethics and values developed and how cultures impacted each school or system of psychology.

Differences and similarities between 3 or more schools or systems of psychology were outlined in comparison to the literature Discussion Behaviorism And Neo-behaviorism.

Psychology Of Abnormal Behavior Discussion Question

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Psychology Of Abnormal Behavior Discussion Question

Question one

Recently some states have moved to legalize the possession and use of small amounts of marijuana. Do you support this movement? Why or why not? Can you think of some unintended consequences of such policy changes?

Question two

If everyone has a “different” personality (i.e., if no two are alike), then how can we say that someone has a “disordered” or “sick” personality? What truly makes a personality pathological?

Extra Information: Psychology Of Abnormal Behavior Discussion Question

Tobacco-Related Disorders

Nicotine, which was introduced in the French court t in the 16th century is what gives smoking its pleasurable qualities. About 30% of all Americans smoke, which is down from 4 2.4 % who were smokers in 1965. Nicotine in small doses stimulates the central nervous system, but may also relieve stress and improve mood. It can also cause high blood pressure, heart disease and cancer. High doses blur vision, cause confusion, lead to convulsions and sometimes death.

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Caffeine Use Disorders

Caffeine is called the “gentle stimulant” and is used regularly by 90% of Americans. This drug is found in tea, coffee, cola drinks, and cocoa products. In small doses, caffeine can elevate mood and reduce fatigue, but larger doses can produce jitteriness and insomnia.

Regular caffeine use can result in tolerance and dependence. Withdrawal symptoms include headaches, drowsiness, and a generally unpleasant mood. Caffeine’s effect on the brain appears to involve the neurotransmitters adenosine and to a lesser extent serotonin Caffeine block adenosine reuptake.

Biological Causes of Substance-related Disorders

Evidence suggests that substance abuse has a genetic component. Twin, family, and adoption studies indicate that certain people may be genetically vulnerable to drug abuse. Most genetic data on substance abuse comes from research on alcoholism.

Both twin and adoption studies suggest genetic factors play a role in alcoholism, particularly in males. Two studies have located genes that may influence alcoholism on chromosomes 1, 2, 7, and 11, plus a finding that a gene on chromosomes 4 may serve to protect people from becoming alcohol dependent. The field of functional genomics focuses on how genes work to influence addiction. Psychology Of Abnormal Behavior Discussion Question

The pleasurable experience reported by people who use psychoactive substances partly explains why people continue to use them. In effect, people are positively reinforced for using drugs. All drugs seem to affect the reward or pleasure centers of the brain. The pleasure center is believed to include the dopaminergic system and its opioid-releasing neurons that begin in the midbrain ventral tegmental area and then work their way through the nucleus accumbens a region in the basal forebrain rostral to the preoptic area of the hypothalamus) and on to the frontal cortex.

Amphetamines and cocaine (including nicotine and alcohol) act directly on the dopamine system, whereas other drugs increase the availability of dopamine indirectly. GABA, as a major inhibitory neurotransmitter system, helps to turn off the continued activity of the reward system. Opiates inhibit GABA from doing its job, which in turn stops the GABA neurons from inhibiting dopamine, thus making more dopamine available from inhibiting dopamine, thus making more dopamine available in the reward center.

With several drugs, negative reinforcement is related to the drug’s anxiolytic effect, particularly alcohol. Such drugs reduce anxiety via the septal/hippocampal system, which includes a large number of GABA sensitive neurons. Such drugs may enhance the activity of GABA in this region, thereby inhibiting the brain’s normal reaction (anxiety/fear) to anxiety-producing situations. Psychology Of Abnormal Behavior Discussion Question

Personality Disorders

The personality disorders represent long-standing and ingrained ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving that can cause significant distress. Because people may display two or more of these maladaptive ways of interacting with the world, considerable disagreement remains over how to categorize personality disorders.

DSM-5 includes 10 personality disorders that are divided into three clusters: Cluster A (odd or eccentric) includes paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders; Cluster B (dramatic, emotional, or erratic) includes antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders; and Cluster C (anxious or fearful) includes avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.

Cluster A Personality Disorders

People with paranoid personality disorder are excessively mistrustful and suspicious of other people, without any justification. They tend not to confide in others and expect other people to do them harm.

People with schizoid personality disorder show a pattern of detachment from social relationships and a limited range of emotions in interpersonal situations. They seem aloof, cold, and indifferent to other people. People with schizotypal personality disorder are typically socially isolated and behave in ways that would seem unusual to most of us. In addition, they tend to be suspicious and have odd beliefs about the world.

Cluster B Personality Disorders

People with antisocial personality disorder have a history of failing to comply with social norms. They perform actions most of us would find unacceptable, such as stealing from friends and family. They also tend to be irresponsible, impulsive, and deceitful. In contrast to the DSM-5 criteria for antisocial personality, which focuses almost entirely on observable behaviors (for example, impulsively and repeatedly changing employment, residence, or sexual partners), the related concept of psychopathy primarily reflects underlying personality traits (for example, self-centeredness or manipulativeness). People with borderline personality disorder lack stability in their moods and in their relationships with other people, and they usually have poor self-esteem. These individuals often feel empty and are at great risk of suicide. Individuals with histrionic personality disorder tend to be overly dramatic and often appear almost to be acting. Psychology Of Abnormal Behavior Discussion Question

Cluster C Personality Disorders

People with avoidant personality disorder are extremely sensitive to the opinions of others and therefore avoid social relationships. Their extremely low self-esteem, coupled with a fear of rejection, causes them to reject the attention of others. Individuals with dependent personality disorder rely on others to the extent of letting them make everyday decisions, as well as major ones; this results in an unreasonable fear of being abandoned.

People who have obsessive-compulsive personality disorder are characterized by a fixation on things being done “the right way.” This preoccupation with details prevents them from completing much of anything.

Treating people with personality disorders is often difficult because they usually do not see that their difficulties are a result of the way they relate to others.

Personality disorders are important for the clinician to consider because they may interfere with efforts to treat more specific problems such as anxiety, depression, or substance abuse. Unfortunately, the presence of one or more personality disorders is associated with a poor treatment outcome and a generally negative prognosis.

Summary:

In a 2010 article , Personality disorder: a new global perspective, in the journal, World Psychology, there is growing acceptance that personality disorder is an equal partner with other disorders, and is now accepted worldwide , affecting roughly 6% of the world’s population.

Information found in the 2015 article, Personality Disorders and Their Impact — A Summary from the Personality Disorders Foundation, explains that,

People with severe personality disorders are high-cost, persistent, and intensive users of mental health services. One in every 20 individuals suffers with a personality disorder. Up to 10% of those in outpatient mental health treatment clinics have a personality disorder, and almost 15% of individuals in inpatient psychiatric care have a severe personality disorder. Individuals with personality disorders usually present for therapy with presenting issues other than personality problems, most often with complaints of depression and anxiety. For example, among patients with Borderline Personality Disorder, major depression has been observed in up to 74% of these individuals, and Panic Disorder has been found to occur in 10% to 25% of these individuals. Individuals with personality disorders are also more likely to have an eating disorder, or a history of significant trauma. About one-third of people who frequently use general health services (and for whom no clear medical diagnosis is found) have severe personality disorders. Individuals with personality disorders are more likely to be stigmatized and blamed for their illness, relative to other psychiatric and medical disorders. Relative to other psychiatric disorders, personality disorders have been less understood and recognized, and treatment options and appropriate supportive housing have been less available. Concerns about “stigmatizing” the client sometimes leads clinicians who recognize a personality disorder in a particular patient to not assign this diagnosis because the label “personality disorder” often suggests more frustrating challenges for the clinician. Significant problems with clinical management and treatment compliance often emerge. The length of treatment, frequency of treatment sessions, treatment strategies used, and goals and expectations for both therapist and patient need to be changed when a patient has a personality disorder. There has been an increase in research that clearly supports the underlying neurobiology of these disorders, and increased demonstrations of the effectiveness of different types of medications and psychotherapies. The linkages for treatment of substance abuse and personality disorders are growing, and programs for effective community diversion in the criminal justice system for non-violent personality disordered offenders are being established (2015, paragraphs 6 – 12)Psychology Of Abnormal Behavior Discussion Question.

Researchers A. Tom Horvath , Kaushik Misra , Amy K. Epner , and Galen Morgan Cooper , have written in the online AMHC article, Addiction and Personality Disorders, that, “contrary to popular belief, research has been unable to identify an ‘ addictive personality. ‘ However, some personality traits are more commonly observed in people with substance use disorders. Most of the research regarding addiction and personality traits has been conducted with people who have alcohol use disorders. Nonetheless, we observe many of these traits in people with other substance use disorders as well. The most common of these personality traits include nonconformity; impulsivity; sensation- or thrill-seeking; emotional dysregulation, negative affect (e.g., depression, anxiety); low self-esteem; and an external locus of control ” ( no date, AMHC, paragraph 4).

 

Links:

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2013/08/130804081115.htm

https://www.helpguide.org/articles/addictions/substance-abuse-and-mental-health.htm

http://www.encyclopedia.com/medicine/diseases-and-conditions/pathology/impulse-control-disorders

http://outofthefog.website/

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e3p_LuTM73k

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=66cYcSak6nE

http://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/pb-assets/dsm/update/DSM5Update2016.pdf

Textbook

http://ng.cengage.com/static/nb/ui/index.html?nbId=544660&nbNodeId=195660646&deploymentId=47355418160514706586386572946&eISBN=9781285778815#!&parentId=195660647

If the above link for textbook doesn’t work use this Psychology Of Abnormal Behavior Discussion Question

https://www.cengagebrain.com/shop 

ONLY USE THE SOURCES I GIVE

CITE WORK

ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY MODEL

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ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY MODEL

his student’s essay is a third draft, so it still has some minor mistakes; nevertheless, this argumentative essay has on-topic, well-developed examples and is well organized. Plus, MLA in-text citations are properly formatted.

Television is considered one of the most important inventions of the Modern world. Many people feel that television has helped improve their lives by entertaining them through reality based shows and educating them through learning channels. To many people, television’s entertainment value is, quite frankly, limitless. However, few people have stopped to analyze the harms of watching television. Salmon Rushdie, the author of “Reality TV: A Dearth of Talent and the Death of Morality” and Marie Winn, the author of “TV: The Plug in Drug,” both have mainly negative views about television. Television has proven to be harmful to society because of the dramatic increase in child obesity, unrealistic body images for girls, and increased depictions of violence. Comment by tparks: Opposition’s point-of-view Comment by tparks: Title of sources and authors Comment by tparks: Three –point thesis statement ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY MODEL

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First, television is harmful to society because of childhood obesity. For example, children who watch television in excess of three plus hours usually have very lethargic lifestyles. Plus, these children are often gorging on Twinkies and sugary filled donuts while watching their favorite shows. Winn states the television is a device that “allows for no communication or [physical] interaction” (235). Furthermore, television commercials often broadcast junk-food commercials like McDonalds and Burger King. These commercials are clever at appealing to lethargic children by enticing them with golden French fries and shiny yellow hamburger wrappers. As a result, children beg and plead with their parents to take them around the corner for a burger meal. While big fast-food companies are making large sums of money from commercials, children are suffering health-wise by becoming fatter and fatter. Comment by tparks: Topic sentence with transition word Comment by tparks: In-text citation Comment by tparks: Specific, on-topic examples ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY MODEL

Second, television harms society because of unrealistic body images for girls. Rushdie states, “…decency and [self-respect] is rendered [useless] in today’s society” (240). Most music videos create a very unrealistic view of the average girl’s body. Most of the video girls are tall and slim. They have long hair and almond shaped eyes. They have small waists and wear tight-fitting designer clothes, all details that usually appeal to men. Men are usually fighting each other just to stand next to the girl in the music video. When young girls see the attention that the video girls attract from men, they want to emulate these video girls, so they harm their bodies trying to achieve the unrealistic model-like look. Many young girls have died from eating disorders in hopes of trying to attain the images that they see on the television screen. Overall, television can really distort a girl’s view of her body image. Comment by tparks: In-text citation

Third, television has harmed society with the increased depictions of violence. For instance, crime shows like 48 Hours depicts violent homicides. One past episode showed a woman strangled to death with a telephone cord. Rushdie states, “One murder is barely enough, ” especially to a society whose feelings have been numbed to television violence a long time ago (232). When non-thinking people see violence on television, sometimes they want to commit those same violent crimes in reality. Surveillance cameras have captured many violent people in the act of committing crimes; and unfortunately, these criminals imitate the moves and words that they see on television to commit violent crimes. Undoubtedly, if the American television broadcasters do not limit or alter the violent depictions shown on television, the American crime rate will continue to increase.

In conclusion, although television entertains many people, it also harms people. Television harms society by increasing childhood obesity. Children should be made to turn the television off and do more exercise. Plus, television harms society by creating unrealistic body images for young girls, and by showcasing too much violence. Everybody should work hard to improve the quality of television. Comment by tparks: Conclusion ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY MODEL

Discussion Social and Emotional Intelligence

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Discussion Social and Emotional Intelligence

What ideas or phrases come to mind when you hear the term intelligence? Prior to the current emphasis on emotional and social intelligence, individuals tended to associate intelligence with one measurement: intelligence quotient or the IQ. While the IQ focuses on intellectual abilities, emotional intelligence focuses on an individual’s awareness of his or her feelings and the feelings of others, and social intelligence focuses on an individual’s interpersonal skills (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2016, pp. 506-509)Discussion Social and Emotional Intelligence.

To prepare for this Discussion, read “Working With People With Disabilities: The Case of Andres” on pages 28–31 in Social Work Case Studies: Foundation Year. Consider what you have learned about social and emotional intelligence in this week’s resources as well as what you learn about the person and environment as it relates to young and middle adulthood. Discussion Social and Emotional Intelligence

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Post a Discussion that includes the following:

 

o   An explanation of how social and emotional intelligence are related to cultural factors

o   An explanation about how you, as a social worker, might apply the concepts of emotional and/or social intelligence to the case of Andres

o   An explanation of how social workers, in general, might apply social and emotional intelligence to social work practice. (Include a specific example in the explanation.)

 

Be sure to support your posts with specific references to the resources. If you are using additional articles, be sure to provide full APA-formatted citations for your references.

 

References (use 2 or more)

 

Plummer, S. -B., Makris, S., & Brocksen, S. M. (Eds.). (2014). Social work case studies: Foundation year. Baltimore, MD: Laureate International Universities Publishing. [Vital Source e-reader].

 

Zastrow, C. H., & Kirst-Ashman, K. K. (2016). Understanding human behavior and the social environment (10th ed.). Boston, MA:  Cengage Learning.

 Working With Clients With Disabilities: The Case of Andres

Andres is a 68-year-old male originally from Honduras. He is married and the father of two grown children: a daughter who is married with one child and a son who is unmarried. Andres lives with his wife in a brownstone in an upper-class urban neighborhood, and they are financially stable. He relies on Medicare for his health insurance. Andres is a retired child psychiatrist who completed medical school in Honduras and committed his career to working with Latino children and families in a major metropolitan area. Andres’ wife is a clinical psychologist who still maintains an active practice. Andres has a good relationship with his children, seeing them at least once a week for dinner, and his granddaughter is the light of his life.

Approximately 6 years ago, Andres was diagnosed with a rare brain tumor and Parkinson’s disease. Prior to his diagnosis, Andres was still on staff at a hospital, jogged daily, and had plans to travel with his wife. In a short time, Andres’ health deteriorated significantly. He now uses a cane and walker to ambulate. His speech is slow and soft. He requires assistance to get dressed and eat at times due to severe tremors and the loss of dexterity in his hands. Andres has fallen on multiple occasions and therefore cannot go out alone. He suffers from depression and anxiety and is currently on medication for these conditions. Andres spends a majority of time at home reading. He has lost contact with many of his friends and almost all of his professional colleagues. Discussion Social and Emotional Intelligence

Andres presented for treatment at an outpatient mental health setting. His daughter suggested it because she was concerned about her father’s worsening depression. Andres came into treatment stating his family thought he needed to talk to someone. He complied, but was unsure if treatment was really necessary. Andres agreed to weekly sessions and was escorted to each session by an aide who helped him at home.

While Andres had difficulty stating specific goals in the beginning, the focus of treatment became obvious to both of us early on, and we were able to agree to a treatment plan. Across multiple spheres of his life, Andres was struggling with accepting his illness and the resulting disabilities. In addition, he was extremely socially isolated despite the fact that he lived with his family and they were supportive of his medical needs. Finally, Andres’ role and identity had changed in his family and the world overall.

In a mere 6 years, Andres had lost his independence. He went from being a man who jogged every day to a man who could not carry a glass of water from one room to the next in his own home. Andres was trying valiantly to hold on to his independence. While his wife and his children were willing to provide any assistance he needed, Andres hated the idea of asking for help. As a result, he did things that compromised his balance, and he had several bad falls. In addition, Andres’ wife had assumed responsibility for all of the family’s affairs (i.e., financial, household, etc.), which had been Andres’ job before he got sick. Andres struggled as he saw his wife overwhelmed by all that she now had to take on. At the same time, he did not feel like he had the ability to reclaim any of what had been “taken” from him. Together, Andres and I identified the things he felt he was capable of doing independently and worked on how he could go about reclaiming some of the independence he had lost. We spoke about how he could communicate his needs, both for help and independence, to his family. We explored his resistance to asking for help. On many occasions Andres would say, “I was the one my children came to for help; now they have to help me. I can’t stand that.” Discussion Social and Emotional Intelligence

In addition to the struggles Andres faced in his everyday life, he also had to cope with the reality of his illness. Andres was well aware that his illness was degenerative, and with each change in his condition, this became a stronger reality. Andres frequently spoke of “a miracle cure.” He constantly researched new and experimental treatments in hopes that something new would be found. While I never attempted to strip Andres of his hope for a cure, we spent a considerable amount of effort getting Andres to accept his condition and work with what was possible now. For example, Andres had always been resistant to physical therapy (PT), but during our treatment, he began PT to work on maintaining his current balance rather than trying to cure his balance problems. Facing his illness meant facing his own mortality, and Andres knew his fate as much as he wanted to deny it. He often spoke of the things he would never experience, like his granddaughter graduating from high school and traveling through Europe with his wife.

Andres’ treatment lasted a little bit more than a year. He demonstrated significant improvement in his ability to communicate with his wife and children. Andres continued to struggle with asking for help, repeatedly putting himself in compromising situations and having several more falls. After the fact, he was able to evaluate his actions and see how he could have asked for limited assistance, but in the moment it was very difficult for him to take the active step of asking for help. Andres was also able to reconnect with an old friend who he had avoided as a result of his physical disabilities and feelings of inadequacy. We were forced to terminate when I left my position to relocate out of state. Discussion Social and Emotional Intelligence

 

 

_________________________________________________________

 

 

 

Discussion 2: The Impact of Social Policy

 

Social policies can have a significant impact on individuals and families, as well as the organizations and agencies that implement the policies. In some cases, the policy, as written, appears comprehensive and effective. Yet, despite appearances, the policy might fail to be effective as a result of improper implementation, interpretation, and/or application of the policy. As a social worker, how might you reduce the potential negative impact faulty social policies might have on organizations and agencies, as well as the populations you serve?

 

For this Discussion, review this week’s resources, including cases “Working with Immigrants and Refugees: The Case of Luisa” and “Social Work Policy: Benefit Administration and Provision.” Then, select either of the cases and consider how the social welfare policies presented in the case influenced the problems facing Luisa or Tessa. Finally, think about how policies affect social agencies and how social workers work with clients such as Tessa or Luisa.

Post an explanation of the effects of the social welfare policies presented in the case study you selected on Luisa or Tessa.

 

·      Be specific and reference the case study you selected in your post.

 

·      Finally, explain how policies affect social agencies and how social workers work with clients, such as Tessa or Luisa.

Support your post with specific references to the resources. Be sure to provide full APA citations for your references.

 References (use 2 or more)

 Plummer, S.-B., Makris, S., & Brocksen, S. (Eds.). (2014). Social work case studies: Foundation year. Baltimore: MD: Laureate International Universities Publishing. [Vital Source e-reader].

Popple, P. R., & Leighninger, L. (2015). The policy-based profession: An introduction to social welfare policy analysis for social workers. (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Center on Budget and Policy Priorities. (2011). Policy basics: Introduction to the federal budget process. Retrieved from www.cbpp.org/files/3-7-03bud.pdf

Working With Immigrants and Refugees: The Case of Luisa

Luisa is a 36-year-old, married, Latino female who immigrated to the United States from Colombia. She speaks only Spanish, so a translator must be used for communication. She came to the United States on a visa, but remained beyond the allotted time. While in the United States, she met and married Hugo, who was in the country with documentation. Once Luisa married Hugo, she became pregnant with a daughter, who is now 3 years old.

Luisa has a 10-year-old son named Juan in Colombia. Luisa has always had the desire to reunite with Juan and bring him to the United States to live with her. After her marriage and status change, she began the process of sponsoring Juan. She has been advised that in order for sponsorship to be achieved, she cannot receive welfare benefits because she needs to prove that she can support herself and her child.

Luisa came to the local welfare agency after she and her daughter entered the domestic violence shelter. She reported that Hugo had a history of violence, which was exacerbated when he drank alcohol. Hugo had been drinking more frequently, and the episodes of violence had increased in severity. The domestic violence program requires all residents to apply for any available benefits in order to remain enrolled in their services.

In one particular episode, Hugo almost fractured her orbital bones. She had extensive facial bruising and blood pooled in one eye. Luisa is quite fearful of Hugo. She is also financially dependent on him. She is reluctant to apply for benefits because she fears that this will compromise her ability to sponsor her son in Colombia. She is tearful and tells me that she cannot sacrifice her son’s opportunity to come to the United States.

Luisa is socially isolated because she has no family in the United States, and Hugo has restricted her ability to socialize and establish friendships. However, she is a practicing Catholic and does belong to a church that offers bilingual services.

Luisa began to discuss returning to Hugo because she felt that this was her only viable option. I advised her that under the new federal changes in immigration laws she might be allowed to apply for benefits and still sponsor her son because she is experiencing domestic violence. I explained that we would need to speak to an immigration lawyer to verify this, but it could possibly be an alternative to returning to Hugo.

Luisa reported that she had given money to lawyers in the past who had been unhelpful. She was suspicious of the law’s ability to protect her. Hugo had also threatened to report her to the authorities, stating that he would tell them she only married him to remain in the country. Although this is not true, she feared that he would do this, and she would never see her daughter again.

I offered to speak with someone at the domestic violence program and advocate that they allow her some time to research her options. I told Luisa that these were difficult decisions to make and that she would be supported in her decision. I told her that she knew what was best for her family. I offered to research the options that she might have under this new federal program. I also asked for permission to contact the priest at her church so that she might be able to review her situation with a religious leader in the community. Luisa agreed.

Two weeks later, Luisa applied for services on behalf of her daughter and herself. She has decided not to return to Hugo Discussion Social and Emotional Intelligence.

 

The Sample Intelligence-Achievement Report

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The Sample Intelligence-Achievement Report

Module Eight Assignment Guidelines

Overview: This assignment will allow you to consider ways to deliver the results of an assessment in an ethical and strength-based manner. You will be using the results from a previous assignment and transforming them into a transcript that could be used with a real-life client.

Prompt: Before you begin this assignment, revisit the short paper you wrote for Module Five, in which you analyzed the results of Bob’s intelligence and achievement testing. Specifically, you identified his strengths and weaknesses related to the WRAT-4 and WASI-2. Elements of your paper included Bob’s  The Sample Intelligence-Achievement Report

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strengths and weaknesses, how his strengths and weaknesses applied to his overall functioning, and suggestions or recommendations for him.

For this assignment, you will be using the elements from that paper and turning them into a written or verbal transcript, as if you were delivering the results to Bob in real life. This must be done in an ethical manner, with the client’s best interests at the forefront of the delivery. You will be providing a review of the

results in layman’s terms, using strength-based and nonjudgmental language and focusing on the summary of results, the use of strength-based language, the summary of recommendations, and an accurate portrayal of the findings.

Your assignment must be submitted as a written transcript, an audio recording, or a video. There is no The Sample Intelligence-Achievement Report

Page requirement or time requirement for this assignment as long as all critical elements are visited. Remember that your intended audience is Bob and not your instructor, so remember to speak directly to

Bob when delivering the results. You should use the terms “you,” “your,” and “yours.”

Specifically, the following critical elements must be addressed:

I. Summary of Results: Results from Module Five Short Paper are summarized in a manner that is organized and ethical.

II. Use of Strength-Based Language: Appropriate, ethical language is used to speak to the patient.

III. Summary of Recommendations: Recommendations from Module Five Short Paper are summarized in a manner that is organized and ethical.

IV. Accurate Portrayal of Findings: Results and recommendations are accurately portrayed to the patient.

The Sample Intelligence-Achievement Report articulates Bob’s scores in the Wide Range Achievement Test 4 (WRAT-4) AND Wechsler Abbreviated Scale of Intelligence 2 (WASI-2). In relation to the WASI-2 test, Bob’s Full Scale IQ Score (FSIQ-4) was established to be average. Average scores in the subscales of this test show that the individual shows performance or intellectual abilities that are normal relative to the peers of similar age. Such scores show that the individual should be able to exhibit what is considered normal intellectual performance. Bob’s ability in most of the subscales are average, including his Verbal Comprehension Index, his knowledge of English word definitions and verbal reasoning abilities, his Perceptual Reasoning Index, as well as his nonverbal problem solving abilities. However, Bob’s score in visual spatial skills fall within the low average range. This presents his first weakness. This means that Bob has weakness in positioning himself properly when confronted by differing interfaces. For example, when exposed to different visual environments, he may not perform as other peers of his age. The Sample Intelligence-Achievement Report

On the other hand, the WRAT-4 test is used to evaluate fundamental academic skills (Keat & Ismail, 2011). There are specific subscales in this test where Bob exhibits average performance as compared to how his peers of the same age would perform, these include his Word Reading (standard score of 99), sentence comprehension (standard score of 93), and his Reading Composite (standard score of 95). However, Bob’s standard score of 78 in Spelling falls within the borderline range which suggests that he is more likely to perform much worse than his peers. This is clearly a weakness for Bob and reflective of a potentially poor performance in English word spelling tasks. Another weakness for Bob manifests in his Math Computation (standard score of 83). This means that Bob will most likely perform worse as compared to his peers, especially on tasks involving increasingly complex mathematical problems.

As already mentioned, an average score in the subscales of both WASI-2 and WRAT-4 show that Bob depicts normal intellectual ability in relation to his peers. These may not be characterized as strengths because a strength is a subjective characterization. Bob had to depict an ability of above average or higher in any one of the scores to achieve this characterization. However, it is clear that he has weaknesses in specific areas, especially those that require visual-spatial processing skills. Because Bob does not have any strength that can be distinguished from the average scores discussed above, this analysis will outline how his weaknesses may potentially affect his overall functioning. Bob’s comparative scores in the two areas of nonverbal abilities show that he may struggle among his peers. The WRAT-4 has outlined his weaknesses in both spelling and math computation. These weaknesses will definitely affect his functioning in academic environments. This is because spelling and math computation appear repetitively in numerous academic areas. This disadvantage may see him struggle in an academic environment and potentially perform lower than his peers.

Based on this analysis, there are some recommendations that can be advanced to Bob to help his situation. To begin with, there are specific behavioral interventions that can be instituted to help individuals sharpen their visual spatial skills. This can be recommended for Bob to help him improve his abilities in this competency. Additionally, it is possible to improve his spelling skills by embracing behavioral activities that sharpen this particular competency. Similarly, there are specific mathematics interventions that can be used on Bob to improve his computational skills (Codding, et al., 2007)The Sample Intelligence-Achievement Report.

References

Codding, R. S., Shiyko, M., Russo, M., Birch, S., Fanning, E., & Jaspen, D. (2007). Comparing mathematics interventions: Does initial level of fluency predict intervention effectiveness? Journal of School Psychology, 45(6), 603-617.

Keat, O. B., & Ismail, K. B. (2011). The relationship between cognitive processing and reading. Asian Social Science, 7(10), 44.

Discussion Current Ethical Dilemma

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Discussion Current Ethical Dilemma

You will locate current ethical dilemma events. In a 3-4 page paper, you will identify an issue that reveals an ethical dilemma. You must describe the dilemma, state the facts leading up to the dilemma, provide a brief description of all of the stakeholders involved in the dilemma and/or who have an interest in the outcome of the dilemma, proffer suggestions for best dealing with and/or solving the dilemma, and explain why the proffered suggestion(s) is ideal given the circumstances. Papers will be graded for clarity, comprehensiveness, and grammar. Papers must be typewritten in 12-point font size (Times New Roman), double spaced, and have one-inch margins all around.  Please use course readings along with additional sources (with a minimum of 3 references). In addition to providing a cover and references page. 

For my topic, I want to talk about Door Dash ethical Dilemma where the tips were not going to the workers.  Must you three sources.  The first source is mandatory, the other two are optional. Use 3-5 quotes to support. Please use the Book to support your claim that is also mandatory. I have attached the book to the question. Thank you!  Discussion Current Ethical Dilemma

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https://www.theverge.com/2019/7/24/20708212/doordash-delivery-tip-theft-policy-change-tony-xu-tweets

https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/07/24/doordash-change-its-controversial-tipping-policy-after-outcry/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.c0195d8ee3a8

Ethics is an essential aspect of public service, but it is often left out of discussions on the development of the field and its major functions. Ethics is sometimes treated as a specialized topic studied for its own sake. For ethics to guide the attitudes and behavior of public administrators, it must be integrated into the way administrators think about their practice and incorporated into their everyday behavior.

I come to the exploration of ethics from a general scholarly interest in political- administrative relations. In my research and teaching, I seek to understand how public administration contributes to the political process, how politicians and administrators interact with each other, and how administrators relate to citizens. Examining these topics naturally brings up the issue of appropriate limits and goals, particularly regarding the behavior of public administrators. What is, and should be, the role of professional public administrators in governance? What are the characteristics of political-administrative relations? What do we expect administrators to do—and not to do? How do administrators relate to citizens? How should they balance their accountability to elected superiors and their professional standards with their responsibility to the public? The normative side of each of these questions involves “big” ethical issues, and these are the focus of this text.

John Gaus (1950) argued many years ago that a theory of public administration is also a theory of politics. I agree and hope to make the case for a further broadening of our understanding of the field. A theory of public administration in the political process is also a theory of ethics.

I believe that the same logic also applies to understanding the ethics of administrators in nonprofit organizations because of the basic similarity in the nature of administrative responsibilities in the governmental and nonprofit sectors. The city manager who works with the city council and serves the public, and the nonprofit executive director who works with a board of directors and serves clients, share many important characteristics in their work, in the ethical challenges that they face, and in their duty to serve. The text is also concerned with administrators who have little direct interaction with the public, whether in national or state government or in nonprofit organizations. Discussion Current Ethical Dilemma

This text is a primer that introduces the reader to the fundamentals of administrative responsibility and ethics. It links these ideas to the nature of the administrative process and the work of professional administrators. It seeks to help the reader understand why ethics is important to people who choose to be administrators in governmental and nonprofit organizations and how to relate their own personal values with the norms of the public sector. Furthermore, the text offers assistance in working through the complexity and controversy surrounding ethical problems in public administration. It avoids prescription—thou shalt, thou shalt not—as much as possible and seeks instead

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to enable the reader to form his or her own judgments about ethical choices. It is an introduction to fundamental issues that equips readers to make informed choices about their own behavior. It also provides a foundation for exploring the topic in more depth in other courses or training opportunities.

I approach this text with 16 years of teaching ethics and professional practice—a core course in the master of public administration (MPA) degree—and more years teaching related topics. I hope to create in these words-on-pages some of the dynamic exchange that occurs in the classroom as students grapple with the important issues in administrative ethics. From this experience, I know quite well that this text does not “teach” ethics, in the sense of trying to fill in a blank slate. The reader already has a basic understanding of what it means to be an ethical person. Like my students, the reader comes to this text with a reservoir of ethical and moral values upon which he or she can draw. Discussion Current Ethical Dilemma

In addition to my teaching, I bring perspectives from the experience of being an administrator, a program director, and department head. Some important generic issues in supervision, interpersonal relations, resource use, reporting, and planning are encountered even in the rather disorganized sphere of academic administration. I also benefited greatly from a year on leave working in Washington, DC, from 1976–1977 at the Department of Housing and Urban Development as a National Association of School of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA) Fellow. Furthermore, a lot of my research and training involves interacting with politicians and administrators, both in the United States and other countries. I think that I have come to appreciate the kinds of challenges that administrators face and how often there is an important ethical dimension to these challenges.

My research reflects a blending of my early focus on urban politics and political leadership and my deepening interest in administrative leadership and values. I explore professional administration in a political context. Although much of my writing has focused on local government, my teaching addresses issues at all levels of government and in nonprofits. I conduct empirical research on topics that have a normative dimension and examine the normative implications of my quantitative research. I have merged empirical research findings with analysis of the development of public administration to suggest a new (but I believe historically grounded) way to conceptualize political-administrative relations. This approach stresses the complementarity of politics and administration rather than a dichotomy or strict separation as the conceptual foundation of the field. This model informs my approach to administrative ethics. Discussion Current Ethical Dilemma

The Ethics Primer for Public Administrators in Government and Nonprofit Organizations, Second Edition presents a simple theme that, of course, gets complicated in the telling. People enter the field of public administration, just as the reader enters this text, with an interest in public service and a set of values shaped in part by that interest. These values reflect most of the essential elements of ethical thinking, but they are not developed in a very sophisticated way. Like most adults, people who have not formally studied administrative ethics tend to have values that are grounded in respect for conventional norms. Also, they tend to have fairly substantial respect for people in positions of “authority.” This condition creates tension between the sense of duty to serve and act responsibly, on the one hand, and the deference to the superiors and Discussion Current Ethical Dilemma

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established rules, on the other. Most people who have not expanded their knowledge or thought systematically about ethics and the nature of public service are dependent on external sources of direction.

I hope this text will help the reader broaden and deepen his or her understanding of the nature of the public service duty and major approaches to thinking about ethics. I hope the reader will internalize this knowledge so he or she is able to form independent judgments about ethical options based on universal values. The reader will not necessarily reject the external influences he or she receives, but will be better able to weigh his or her own reasoned sense of what is right against what others say is right. Finally, I hope the reader will be able to use this knowledge to take actions that are ethically sound based on a careful consideration of all the relevant options. Because the reader is already or is preparing to become an administrator who is responsible for directing other persons and shaping his or her organization, I hope this text will also help the reader see ways that he or she can raise ethical awareness in others.

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Acknowledgments

I have been a member of the faculty in the School of Public Affairs at Arizona State University and want to thank my colleagues and students there for their support of my research on ethics. I also want to express my gratitude to a number of colleagues and students at North Carolina State University who helped, both directly and indirectly, with the original text. Debra Stewart helped me understand the importance of the development of ethical reasoning and how it changes over time. Jim Brunet offered comments, suggested sources, and made a test drive in a class he taught with an earlier version of the manuscript. Former doctoral students Dr. Jack Kem and Dr. Julie Raines wrote dissertations on ethics topics and added to my knowledge of the issues and the literature in administrative ethics, and current doctoral students Ljubinka Andonoska and Chin-Chang Tsai at Arizona State University conducted research that contributed to the new edition of the text. Discussion Current Ethical Dilemma

I have had unique opportunity to work on the American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) Code of Ethics review process for the past two years. I am grateful to the 31 members of the working group who diligently examined the current Code of Ethics and thoughtfully proposed revisions that build on ASPA’s prior codes. It was a pleasure working with Jim Nordin, member of the ASPA National Council and retired federal government administrator, who co-chaired the working group with me. My understanding of professional ethics has been deepened by this experience.

My wife, Claudia, has been both patient and supportive over the extended period of this writing project. She is also a model of the ethical professional who exemplifies the duty to service at the highest level in her practice of medicine.

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CHAPTER 1

Introduction—and a Pop Quiz

This text is a primer on administrative ethics, a term that refers to the ethics of persons who occupy career leadership and staff positions in government and nonprofit organizations. It brings to mind oxymorons, which are a form of satiric humor. “Military intelligence,” “jumbo shrimp,” and “airline food” are popular examples. To be honest, “administrative ethics” is probably pretty high on the list of commonly used oxymorons, but more to the point at the start of this text is the possibility that “ethics primer” itself connects two elements that are incompatible. To cover a complex topic such as ethics in the public service in a small, introductory book may seem to be an impossible task. Is it sufficient to briefly introduce and provide initial instruction—the dictionary meaning of a primer—for a subject as weighty as administrative ethics?

Based on my experience in teaching administrative ethics in a short-course format and as a component in a broader course for many years, there is an important precondition. What makes it possible to introduce this vast topic in a meaningful way is the fact that the reader already knows a great deal about ethics. I am assuming that the reader is an adult—young or otherwise—who is either interested in entering the public service or already works for a government or nonprofit organization. As we shall see, both relative maturity and self-selection for a public service position are important to one’s knowledge of and attitudes about administrative ethics. Discussion Current Ethical Dilemma

Ethics is fundamental to one’s work in public service. This does not mean that it is simple or should be treated in a simplistic way. Still, if the topic cannot be discussed in a concise and straightforward way, ethics will be irrelevant to many of the people who work in public service. There are challenging standards and values that should be upheld, and these may be understood in broad terms as well as being the subject for specialized study. This text does not start the process of finding ethics, but it does provide an introduction to examining the nature of standards to which public administrators should adhere in order to meet their far-reaching responsibilities and challenges. Stated differently, this primer is not intended to give the reader a little bit of ethics that might be expanded by additional study. The intention is to provide a lot of ethics with an introduction to their origins and meaning that can be expanded with additional study as well as with reflection based on growing experience.

The tone of this text is personal, the style is a dialogue, and the purpose is exhortatory. The first and second person will be used extensively. “I” will direct comments to “you.” It is not possible to create the interaction of the classroom, but an effort will be made to encourage an exchange in which your response in the form of answers to questions that I pose will help to carry forward the dialogue. Finally, I believe that knowledge provides the basis for understanding and action, and the discussion in this text will provide extensive information. The underlying intent,

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however, is not pedagogical; that is to say, to teach you the subject of administrative ethics. The purpose is to exhort you to engage yourself in ethics, to be more aware of the ethical dimension of public service, to be ethical in a more thoughtful and thoroughgoing way than before, and to do more to encourage others to be ethical.

Implicit in this intent is an approach to ethics that stresses both reducing unethical behavior and promoting the exercise of positive ethical responsibilities. Too often discussions of ethics in the public sector focus on unethical practices and ways to avoid or prevent bad behavior. These important topics are addressed, but more attention is given in this discussion to actions that administrators should take. Harm comes from inaction—the failure to do what is right to meet the highest standards—as well as from engaging in clearly unethical actions. It is important to recognize that doing what is right can raise complex issues and require courage.

Thus, the purpose of the text is to promote ethical behavior by public administrators on both individual and organizational levels. Specifically, the text enables the reader to do the following: Discussion Current Ethical Dilemma

1. Appreciate that ethics is integral to the nature of democratic public administration 2. Understand the responsibilities of public administrators and the bases of

administrative ethics 3. Understand the tenets of the codes of ethics for various professional organizations

in the public sector and how they are applied 4. Be aware of and avoid the pressures and forces in public administration that can

contribute to unethical behavior 5. Develop the knowledge and skills needed to deal with ethical problems that arise

in public service 6. Strengthen the ethical climate in organizations

All of these serve to support ethical action. It is obvious that this text will cover a great deal of intellectual territory. The

discussion of topics is limited to the presentation of the material that is relevant to the line of argument that I am developing. Necessarily, this approach leaves the reader without the full exposition of a topic that it would receive if it were being considered on its own. Readers may pursue topics in more depth by following the guide to the literature provided in the endnotes. I seek to offer a serious but accessible conversation about ethics in the text, and a more scholarly examination of ethics in the endnotes.

POP QUIZ: DO YOU HAVE A CODE OF ETHICS? I do not expect that you will already have a well-formed, explicit code of ethics that you follow in your administrative work. Before examining the subject matter of this text in more depth, however, it is useful to establish a baseline. Here are some questions you can answer for yourself before proceeding further in the text:

What is or should be your code of ethics for work in government or nonprofit organizations? Discussion Current Ethical Dilemma

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What are the standards of right and wrong that should guide your work—the “do’s and don’ts” of public service?

If you will take the time now to record your thoughts, we will refer back to what you have written and compare your responses to other professional students in public administration.

UNDERSTANDING THE SETTING FOR ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICS The discussion of “administrative” ethics applies both to those who work in government and in nonprofit organizations. Our appreciation of “new governance” includes the recognition that public needs are addressed by organizations in both the public and nonprofit sectors (Kettl 2002). Why is ethics a special concern in these particular organizations? It is important that administrators operate within legal and organizational controls. They serve the public, but not as private professionals who operate on a fee- for-service basis. Although there are important differences between the two sectors, the similarities are even greater and staff members in each can benefit from knowing more about the ethical challenges of the other.

To simplify the discussion throughout the text, four terms will be used generically to describe both the governmental and nonprofit setting: organizations, administrators, political superiors, and citizens or clients.

Organizations refer to governmental entities such as a city government as well as to nonprofit organizations. Depending on the context and the nature of the organization, the term will encompass the specific unit to which one is assigned; for instance, a section, the whole department, or the entire organization. For example, a municipal police officer will deal with some ethical issues in his or her area of assignment, such as the patrol division, with some in the department as a whole and with others as an employee of city government. For a staff member in a small nonprofit agency, the distinctions may not be useful or necessary, but larger nonprofits will have similar divisions. Discussion Current Ethical Dilemma

Administrators refer to the civil service or career staff in government and the professional staff in nonprofit organizations. These positions range from the top executives (city managers in municipal government or executive directors in nonprofit organizations) to the staff members who handle a variety of specialized tasks. Some will have supervisory responsibilities and, therefore, are the administrative superiors of the staff they supervise. Others work without subordinates; for example, analysts and many frontline service providers including teachers, counselors, eligibility specialists, or police officers.

Political superiors, on the other hand, refer to persons who set the official goals and policies for the organization and oversee the administrators. In government organizations, this category includes both elected executives and members of legislative bodies as well as the politically appointed and politically oriented top layer of officials chosen by political executives such as the president, governor, or “strong” mayor. In local governments and special purpose agencies such as school districts, the political

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superiors hold positions such as council member, board member, or commissioner. In nonprofit organizations, these persons sit on the board of directors.

Finally, the words citizens and clients refer to persons served by governmental and nonprofit organizations. In some respects, this is the least satisfactory of the generic terms. When stressing the recipients of a service, the word client is generally a suitable term for both government and nonprofit organizations, but it works less well for persons who are audited by an IRS agent or given a speeding ticket by a police officer. Those who do not choose their treatment may not feel that they are a “client” or are being “served,” but we will still include them in this category. Citizen implies not just the person who is impacted by organizational action, but also the person who provides the support and legitimacy for government (Denhardt and Denhardt 2011). Citizenship has come to be intermixed with the discussion of immigrant status, and to some it is a legal term reserved for those who are native-born or naturalized in the United States (Lucio 2009). We will consider citizens to include all residents who are members of the community that interact with government. How officials in governmental and nonprofit organizations interact with residents who are not documented is an important ethical issue. Discussion Current Ethical Dilemma

The term citizen does not have the same meaning for the nonprofit organizations whose leaders are not chosen by or directly accountable to the public. Still, nonprofit organizations also have broad responsibilities to persons beyond those who receive services or provide contributions. If a nonprofit organization is perceived by the public to be wasteful and ineffective, it will probably not be able to survive just because it keeps a small group of clients happy. Furthermore, nonprofits operate within a legal framework that is sanctioned by government and the people. Thus, the basic idea of a service and fiduciary relationship between the organization and the people or some segment of it is common to the public and the nonprofit sectors.

These terms suggest the four responsibilities that are shared by government and nonprofit administrators. These responsibilities are the foundation for identifying the nature of the duty of public administrators: their responsibility to serve individuals, their responsibility to be accountable to the “people” and promote the public interest, their responsibility to their organization, and their responsibility to political superiors and to uphold the law and established policy. Some administrators in governmental and certain nonprofit organizations have the authority to exercise coercive power to support the discharge of their assigned responsibilities.1 Others in government and nonprofit organizations invite persons in need to accept services or assistance; they don’t coerce them to do anything. Frequently, it is citizens who initiate the contact to request or demand actions, remedies, or attention. In any of these circumstances, public administrators relate with citizens in a distinctive way. This is not a market-exchange relationship in which a service or commodity is offered, and customers can decide whether the price and quality are acceptable. In some interactions between citizens and officials, citizens are dependent and vulnerable and have no other source for the service. In other interactions, citizens are the “bosses” of officials. The citizens or clients who interact with public administrators have reason to expect that they will be treated fairly and with respect, that they will be informed and listened to, and that they will receive the service or benefit that they deserve.

The responsibility to the people—to serve the public interest—means that

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administrators should also go beyond one-on-one encounters with individuals to consider general concerns of groups of people or society as a whole. Promoting the public interest requires attention not only to current citizens but to future generations as well (Frederickson 1997). Public administrators’ awareness of social needs and changing conditions provides the basis for identifying possible changes in procedure or policy that they may initiate or propose to administrative or political superiors. They also have a broad responsibility to make good use of the resources that have been entrusted to them whether they come from taxes or contributions.

Public administrators should also be responsible to the organization of which they are a part. This does not mean that the administrator is totally bound by the organization or loses his or her own voice in discussions of ends and means. Still, public administrators are not sole practitioners like physicians or accountants who can set up their own practice. They operate within an authority structure, they work with others to advance organizational mission, and they have a responsibility to make the organization as strong, effective, and ethical as possible.

Administrators also have a responsibility to their political superiors. This relationship involves a complex mixture of control and freedom, accountability and independence. Political-administrative relations based on shared responsibilities are essential to the duty of the public servant.

THE SETTING CONTINUED: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GOVERNMENT AND NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS There are basic similarities in the positions of administrators who work in government and in nonprofit organizations. Still, it is important to recognize some significant differences between these types of organizations as well.2 Nonprofit service organizations arise from a concern about an unmet need. Ott and Dicke (2012, 3) describe their origins in this way:

Throughout the history of the United States, individual citizens repeatedly have recognized a need or a problem, attracted others who share their concern, and built a voluntary constituency that was committed to ameliorating, solving, or eliminating it, even if the issue and the people associated with it were socially undesirable at the time. In instance after instance over the decades and centuries, this voluntary process has been used to influence changes in public policy and government support—or tolerance—for what was originally an unacceptable cause, case or issue, whether it be unacceptable politically, socially, or religiously.

Nonprofits have freedom and flexibility not available to governmental organizations. This freedom applies to generating resources, but nonprofits lack the relatively certain revenues of government and the coercive power to enforce the collection of taxes. Nonprofits have a basic mission that is central to the work of the organization, and it is usually much narrower in scope than the typical general-purpose government. Nonprofits are sometimes referred to as mission-driven organizations. In a sense, the mission has an overriding impact on all those who work for a nonprofit, and this Discussion Current Ethical Dilemma

17condition differentiates it from government. Consider this comparison. City council members are elected to determine the mission and goals of their city government; the choices the members make may be hotly debated within the council and in the larger community, and the specific goals may change dramatically over time. On the other hand, the persons who work in a nonprofit as board members or as staff members typically begin with a commitment to the organization’s mission. They are expected to allow the mission to “drive” them, although they make the detailed decisions about how to translate the mission into reality at a given time. If some persons want to pursue the mission differently or pursue a different version of the mission, they may choose to leave and even to start their own organization.

This option points to another basic characteristic that makes nonprofits distinctive: nonprofit organizations are competitive service organizations. They do not have a monopoly on the provision of a service, as is sometimes the case of government agencies. In addition, they do not provide a product through the market, as is the case of businesses. Still, they offer a purpose, a service, or a product that benefits society (like government) in a competitive setting (like business). To succeed, they must attract clients, volunteers, supporters, and contributors in the face of other organizations that are trying to have the same success. Thus, the staff members in nonprofit organizations are public servants who operate in a more open, flexible, and competitive environment. The underlying presumption of this text is that the shared commitment to serve (as well as the absence of profit motive) makes the staff in nonprofit and governmental organizations more alike than different Discussion Current Ethical Dilemma