Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

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https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.dsm01

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The neurodevelopmental disorders are a group of conditions with onset in the developmental period. The disorders typically manifest early in development, often before the child enters grade school, and are characterized by developmental deficits that produce impairments of personal, social, academic, or occupational functioning. The range of developmental deficits varies from very specific limitations of learning or control of executive functions to global impairments of social skills or intelligence. The neurodevelopmental disorders frequently co-occur; for example, individuals with autism spectrum disorder often have intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder), and many children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) also have a specific learning disorder. For some disorders, the clinical presentation includes symptoms of excess as well as deficits and delays in achieving expected milestones. For example, autism spectrum disorder is diagnosed only when the characteristic deficits of social communication are accompanied by excessively repetitive behaviors, restricted interests, and insistence on sameness. Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder) is characterized by deficits in general mental abilities, such as reasoning, problem solving, planning, abstract thinking, judgment, academic learning, and learning from experience. The deficits result in impairments of adaptive functioning, such that the individual fails to meet standards of personal independence and social responsibility in one or more aspects of daily life, including communication, social participation, academic or occupational functioning, and personal independence at home or in community settings. Global developmental delay, as its name implies, is diagnosed when an individual fails to meet expected developmental milestones in several areas of intellectual functioning. The diagnosis is used for individuals who are unable to undergo systematic assessments of intellectual functioning, including children who are too young to participate in standardized testing. Intellectual disability may result from an acquired insult during the developmental period from, for example, a severe head injury, in which case a neurocognitive disorder also may be diagnosed.

The communication disorders include language disorder, speech sound disorder, social (pragmatic) communication disorder, and childhood-onset fluency disorder (stuttering). The first three disorders are characterized by deficits in the development and use of language, speech, and social communication, respectively. Childhood-onset fluency disorder is characterized by disturbances of the normal fluency and motor production of speech, including repetitive sounds or syllables, prolongation of consonants or vowel sounds, broken words, blocking, or words produced with an excess of physical tension. Like other neurodevelopmental disorders, communication disorders begin early in life and may produce lifelong functional impairments.

Autism spectrum disorder is characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and social interaction across multiple contexts, including deficits in social reciprocity, nonverbal communicative behaviors used for social interaction, and skills in developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships. In addition to the social communication deficits, the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder requires the presence of restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities. Because symptoms change with development and may be masked by compensatory mechanisms, the diagnostic criteria may be met based on historical information, although the current presentation must cause significant impairment.

Within the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder, individual clinical characteristics are noted through the use of specifiers (with or without accompanying intellectual impairment; with or without accompanying structural language impairment; associated with a known medical or genetic condition or environmental factor; associated with another neurodevelopmental, mental, or behavioral disorder), as well as specifiers that describe the autistic symptoms (age at first concern; with or without loss of established skills; severity). These specifiers provide clinicians with an opportunity to individualize the diagnosis and communicate a richer clinical description of the affected individuals. For example, many individuals previously diagnosed with Asperger’s disorder would now receive a diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder without language or intellectual impairment.

ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder defined by impairing levels of inattention, disorganization, and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity. Inattention and disorganization entail inability to stay on task, seeming not to listen, and losing materials, at levels that are inconsistent with age or developmental level. Hyperactivity-impulsivity entails overactivity, fidgeting, inability to stay seated, intruding into other people’s activities, and inability to wait—symptoms that are excessive for age or developmental level. In childhood, ADHD frequently overlaps with disorders that are often considered to be “externalizing disorders,” such as oppositional defiant disorder and conduct disorder. ADHD often persists into adulthood, with resultant impairments of social, academic and occupational functioning. Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

The neurodevelopmental motor disorders include developmental coordination disorder, stereotypic movement disorder, and tic disorders. Developmental coordination disorder is characterized by deficits in the acquisition and execution of coordinated motor skills and is manifested by clumsiness and slowness or inaccuracy of performance of motor skills that cause interference with activities of daily living. Stereotypic movement disorder is diagnosed when an individual has repetitive, seemingly driven, and apparently purposeless motor behaviors, such as hand flapping, body rocking, head banging, self-biting, or hitting. The movements interfere with social, academic, or other activities. If the behaviors cause self-injury, this should be specified as part of the diagnostic description. Tic disorders are characterized by the presence of motor or vocal tics, which are sudden, rapid, recurrent, nonrhythmic, stereotyped motor movements or vocalizations. The duration, presumed etiology, and clinical presentation define the specific tic disorder that is diagnosed: Tourette’s disorder, persistent (chronic) motor or vocal tic disorder, provisional tic disorder, other specified tic disorder, and unspecified tic disorder. Tourette’s disorder is diagnosed when the individual has multiple motor and vocal tics that have been present for at least 1 year and that have a waxing-waning symptom course.

Specific learning disorder, as the name implies, is diagnosed when there are specific deficits in an individual’s ability to perceive or process information efficiently and accurately. This neurodevelopmental disorder first manifests during the years of formal schooling and is characterized by persistent and impairing difficulties with learning foundational academic skills in reading, writing, and/or math. The individual’s performance of the affected academic skills is well below average for age, or acceptable performance levels are achieved only with extraordinary effort. Specific learning disorder may occur in individuals identified as intellectually gifted and manifest only when the learning demands or assessment procedures (e.g., timed tests) pose barriers that cannot be overcome by their innate intelligence and compensatory strategies. For all individuals, specific learning disorder can produce lifelong impairments in activities dependent on the skills, including occupational performance.

The use of specifiers for the neurodevelopmental disorder diagnoses enriches the clinical description of the individual’s clinical course and current symptomatology. In addition to specifiers that describe the clinical presentation, such as age at onset or severity ratings, the neurodevelopmental disorders may include the specifier “associated with a known medical or genetic condition or environmental factor.” This specifier gives clinicians an opportunity to document factors that may have played a role in the etiology of the disorder, as well as those that might affect the clinical course. Examples include genetic disorders, such as fragile X syndrome, tuberous sclerosis, and Rett syndrome; medical conditions such as epilepsy; and environmental factors, including very low birth weight and fetal alcohol exposure (even in the absence of stigmata of fetal alcohol syndrome).

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

Diagnostic Criteria

1. A persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development, as characterized by (1) and/or (2):
   1. Inattention:Six (or more) of the following symptoms have persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that is inconsistent with developmental level and that negatively impacts directly on social and academic/occupational activities:
      • Note:The symptoms are not solely a manifestation of oppositional behavior, defiance, hostility, or failure to understand tasks or instructions. For older adolescents and adults (age 17 and older), at least five symptoms are required.

1. Often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, at work, or during other activities (e.g., overlooks or misses details, work is inaccurate).
2. Often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities (e.g., has difficulty remaining focused during lectures, conversations, or lengthy reading).
3. Often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly (e.g., mind seems elsewhere, even in the absence of any obvious distraction).
4. Often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (e.g., starts tasks but quickly loses focus and is easily sidetracked).
5. Often has difficulty organizing tasks and activities (e.g., difficulty managing sequential tasks; difficulty keeping materials and belongings in order; messy, disorganized work; has poor time management; fails to meet deadlines).
6. Often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require sustained mental effort (e.g., schoolwork or homework; for older adolescents and adults, preparing reports, completing forms, reviewing lengthy papers).
7. Often loses things necessary for tasks or activities (e.g., school materials, pencils, books, tools, wallets, keys, paperwork, eyeglasses, mobile telephones).
8. Is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli (for older adolescents and adults, may include unrelated thoughts).
9. Is often forgetful in daily activities (e.g., doing chores, running errands; for older adolescents and adults, returning calls, paying bills, keeping appointments). Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

2. Hyperactivity and impulsivity:Six (or more) of the following symptoms have persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that is inconsistent with developmental level and that negatively impacts directly on social and academic/occupational activities:
   1. Note:The symptoms are not solely a manifestation of oppositional behavior, defiance, hostility, or a failure to understand tasks or instructions. For older adolescents and adults (age 17 and older), at least five symptoms are required.
   2. Often fidgets with or taps hands or feet or squirms in seat.
   3. Often leaves seat in situations when remaining seated is expected (e.g., leaves his or her place in the classroom, in the office or other workplace, or in other situations that require remaining in place).
   4. Often runs about or climbs in situations where it is inappropriate. (Note:In adolescents or adults, may be limited to feeling restless.)
   5. Often unable to play or engage in leisure activities quietly.
   6. Is often “on the go,” acting as if “driven by a motor” (e.g., is unable to be or uncomfortable being still for extended time, as in restaurants, meetings; may be experienced by others as being restless or difficult to keep up with).
   7. Often talks excessively.
   8. Often blurts out an answer before a question has been completed (e.g., completes people’s sentences; cannot wait for turn in conversation).
   9. Often has difficulty waiting his or her turn (e.g., while waiting in line).
   10. Often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g., butts into conversations, games, or activities; may start using other people’s things without asking or receiving permission; for adolescents and adults, may intrude into or take over what others are doing).
3. Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms were present prior to age 12 years.
4. Several inattentive or hyperactive-impulsive symptoms are present in two or more settings (e.g., at home, school, or work; with friends or relatives; in other activities).
5. There is clear evidence that the symptoms interfere with, or reduce the quality of, social, academic, or occupational functioning.
6. The symptoms do not occur exclusively during the course of schizophrenia or another psychotic disorder and are not better explained by another mental disorder (e.g., mood disorder, anxiety disorder, dissociative disorder, personality disorder, substance intoxication or withdrawal).
   

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Specify whether:

• 01 (F90.2) Combined presentation:If both Criterion A1 (inattention) and Criterion A2 (hyperactivity-impulsivity) are met for the past 6 months.
• 00 (F90.0) Predominantly inattentive presentation:If Criterion A1 (inattention) is met but Criterion A2 (hyperactivity-impulsivity) is not met for the past 6 months.
• 01 (F90.1) Predominantly hyperactive/impulsive presentation:If Criterion A2 (hyperactivity-impulsivity) is met and Criterion A1 (inattention) is not met for the past 6 months. Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Specify if:

• In partial remission:When full criteria were previously met, fewer than the full criteria have been met for the past 6 months, and the symptoms still result in impairment in social, academic, or occupational functioning.

Specify current severity:

• Mild:Few, if any, symptoms in excess of those required to make the diagnosis are present, and symptoms result in no more than minor impairments in social or occupational functioning.
• Moderate:Symptoms or functional impairment between “mild” and “severe” are present.
• Severe:Many symptoms in excess of those required to make the diagnosis, or several symptoms that are particularly severe, are present, or the symptoms result in marked impairment in social or occupational functioning.

Diagnostic Features

The essential feature of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that interferes with functioning or development. Inattention manifests behaviorally in ADHD as wandering off task, lacking persistence, having difficulty sustaining focus, and being disorganized and is not due to defiance or lack of comprehension. Hyperactivity refers to excessive motor activity (such as a child running about) when it is not appropriate, or excessive fidgeting, tapping, or talkativeness. In adults, hyperactivity may manifest as extreme restlessness or wearing others out with their activity. Impulsivity refers to hasty actions that occur in the moment without forethought and that have high potential for harm to the individual (e.g., darting into the street without looking). Impulsivity may reflect a desire for immediate rewards or an inability to delay gratification. Impulsive behaviors may manifest as social intrusiveness (e.g., interrupting others excessively) and/or as making important decisions without consideration of long-term consequences (e.g., taking a job without adequate information).

ADHD begins in childhood. The requirement that several symptoms be present before age 12 years conveys the importance of a substantial clinical presentation during childhood. At the same time, an earlier age at onset is not specified because of difficulties in establishing precise childhood onset retrospectively(Kieling et al. 2010). Adult recall of childhood symptoms tends to be unreliable(Klein et al. 2012; Mannuzza et al. 2002), and it is beneficial to obtain ancillary information.

Manifestations of the disorder must be present in more than one setting (e.g., home and school, work). Confirmation of substantial symptoms across settings typically cannot be done accurately without consulting informants who have seen the individual in those settings. Typically, symptoms vary depending on context within a given setting. Signs of the disorder may be minimal or absent when the individual is receiving frequent rewards for appropriate behavior, is under close supervision, is in a novel setting, is engaged in especially interesting activities, has consistent external stimulation (e.g., via electronic screens), or is interacting in one-on-one situations (e.g., the clinician’s office).

Associated Features Supporting Diagnosis

Mild delays in language, motor, or social development are not specific to ADHD but often co-occur. Associated features may include low frustration tolerance, irritability, or mood lability. Even in the absence of a specific learning disorder, academic or work performance is often impaired. Inattentive behavior is associated with various underlying cognitive processes, and individuals with ADHD may exhibit cognitive problems on tests of attention, executive function, or memory, although these tests are not sufficiently sensitive or specific to serve as diagnostic indices. By early adulthood, ADHD is associated with an increased risk of suicide attempt, primarily when comorbid with mood, conduct, or substance use disorders(Agosti et al. 2011).

No biological marker is diagnostic for ADHD. As a group, compared with peers, children with ADHD display increased slow wave electroencephalograms(Barry et al. 2003), reduced total brain volume on magnetic resonance imaging(Castellanos et al. 2002), and possibly a delay in posterior to anterior cortical maturation(Shaw et al. 2007), but these findings are not diagnostic. In the uncommon cases where there is a known genetic cause (e.g., fragile X syndrome, 22q11 deletion syndrome), the ADHD presentation should still be diagnosed.

Prevalence

Population surveys suggest that ADHD occurs in most cultures in about 5% of children(Polanczyk et al. 2007) and about 2.5% of adults(Simon et al. 2009).

Development and Course

Many parents first observe excessive motor activity when the child is a toddler, but symptoms are difficult to distinguish from highly variable normative behaviors before age 4 years. ADHD is most often identified during elementary school years, and inattention becomes more prominent and impairing. The disorder is relatively stable through early adolescence, but some individuals have a worsened course with development of antisocial behaviors. In most individuals with ADHD, symptoms of motoric hyperactivity become less obvious in adolescence and adulthood, but difficulties with restlessness, inattention, poor planning, and impulsivity persist(Turgay et al. 2012). A substantial proportion of children with ADHD remain relatively impaired into adulthood.

In preschool, the main manifestation is hyperactivity. Inattention becomes more prominent during elementary school. During adolescence, signs of hyperactivity (e.g., running and climbing) are less common and may be confined to fidgetiness or an inner feeling of jitteriness, restlessness, or impatience. In adulthood, along with inattention and restlessness, impulsivity may remain problematic even when hyperactivity has diminished.

Risk and Prognostic Factors

Temperamental

ADHD is associated with reduced behavioral inhibition, effortful control, or constraint; negative emotionality; and/or elevated novelty seeking. These traits may predispose some children to ADHD but are not specific to the disorder. Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Environmental

Very low birth weight (less than 1,500 grams) conveys a two- to threefold risk for ADHD, but most children with low birth weight do not develop ADHD. Although ADHD is correlated with smoking during pregnancy, some of this association reflects common genetic risk(Thapar et al. 2009). A minority of cases may be related to reactions to aspects of diet(Nigg et al. 2012; Stevens et al. 2011). There may be a history of child abuse, neglect, multiple foster placements, neurotoxin exposure (e.g., lead), infections (e.g., encephalitis), or alcohol exposure in utero. Exposure to environmental toxicants has been correlated with subsequent ADHD, but it is not known whether these associations are causal.

Genetic and physiological

ADHD is elevated in the first-degree biological relatives of individuals with ADHD(Stawicki et al. 2006). The heritability of ADHD is substantial. While specific genes have been correlated with ADHD(Gizer et al. 2009), they are neither necessary nor sufficient causal factors. Visual and hearing impairments, metabolic abnormalities, sleep disorders, nutritional deficiencies, and epilepsy should be considered as possible influences on ADHD symptoms.

ADHD is not associated with specific physical features, although rates of minor physical anomalies (e.g., hypertelorism, highly arched palate, low-set ears) may be relatively elevated. Subtle motor delays and other neurological soft signs may occur. (Note that marked co-occurring clumsiness and motor delays should be coded separately [e.g., developmental coordination disorder].)

Course modifiers

Family interaction patterns in early childhood are unlikely to cause ADHD but may influence its course or contribute to secondary development of conduct problems.

Culture-Related Diagnostic Issues

Differences in ADHD prevalence rates across regions appear attributable mainly to different diagnostic and methodological practices(Polanczyk et al. 2007). However, there also may be cultural variation in attitudes toward or interpretations of children’s behaviors. Clinical identification rates in the United States for African American and Latino populations tend to be lower than for Caucasian populations(Froehlich et al. 2007; Kessler et al. 2006; Miller et al. 2009). Informant symptom ratings may be influenced by cultural group of the child and the informant(Mann et al. 1992; Miller et al. 2009), suggesting that culturally appropriate practices are relevant in assessing ADHD.

Gender-Related Diagnostic Issues

ADHD is more frequent in males than in females in the general population, with a ratio of approximately 2:1 in children(Polanczyk et al. 2007) and 1.6:1 in adults(Kessler et al. 2006). Females are more likely than males to present primarily with inattentive features.

Functional Consequences of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

ADHD is associated with reduced school performance and academic attainment(Frazier et al. 2007), social rejection, and, in adults, poorer occupational performance, attainment, attendance, and higher probability of unemployment(Kessler et al. 2006) as well as elevated interpersonal conflict. Children with ADHD are significantly more likely than their peers without ADHD to develop conduct disorder in adolescence and antisocial personality disorder in adulthood(Mannuzza et al. 1998), consequently increasing the likelihood for substance use disorders and incarceration. The risk of subsequent substance use disorders is elevated, especially when conduct disorder or antisocial personality disorder develops(Klein et al. 2012). Individuals with ADHD are more likely than peers to be injured(Merrill et al. 2009; Pastor and Reuben 2006). Traffic accidents and violations are more frequent in drivers with ADHD. There may be an elevated likelihood of obesity among individuals with ADHD(Cortese et al. 2008; Fuemmeler et al. 2011).

Inadequate or variable self-application to tasks that require sustained effort is often interpreted by others as laziness, irresponsibility, or failure to cooperate. Family relationships may be characterized by discord and negative interactions. Peer relationships are often disrupted by peer rejection, neglect, or teasing of the individual with ADHD. On average, individuals with ADHD obtain less schooling, have poorer vocational achievement, and have reduced intellectual scores than their peers, although there is great variability. In its severe form, the disorder is markedly impairing, affecting social, familial, and scholastic/occupational adjustment.

Academic deficits, school-related problems, and peer neglect tend to be most associated with elevated symptoms of inattention, whereas peer rejection and, to a lesser extent, accidental injury are most salient with marked symptoms of hyperactivity or impulsivity(Willcutt et al. 2012).

Differential Diagnosis

Oppositional defiant disorder

Individuals with oppositional defiant disorder may resist work or school tasks that require self-application because they resist conforming to others’ demands. Their behavior is characterized by negativity, hostility, and defiance. These symptoms must be differentiated from aversion to school or mentally demanding tasks due to difficulty in sustaining mental effort, forgetting instructions, and impulsivity in individuals with ADHD. Complicating the differential diagnosis is the fact that some individuals with ADHD may develop secondary oppositional attitudes toward such tasks and devalue their importance.

Intermittent explosive disorder

ADHD and intermittent explosive disorder share high levels of impulsive behavior. However, individuals with intermittent explosive disorder show serious aggression toward others, which is not characteristic of ADHD, and they do not experience problems with sustaining attention as seen in ADHD. In addition, intermittent explosive disorder is rare in childhood. Intermittent explosive disorder may be diagnosed in the presence of ADHD.

Other neurodevelopmental disorders

The increased motoric activity that may occur in ADHD must be distinguished from the repetitive motor behavior that characterizes stereotypic movement disorder and some cases of autism spectrum disorder. In stereotypic movement disorder, the motoric behavior is generally fixed and repetitive (e.g., body rocking, self-biting), whereas the fidgetiness and restlessness in ADHD are typically generalized and not characterized by repetitive stereotypic movements. In Tourette’s disorder, frequent multiple tics can be mistaken for the generalized fidgetiness of ADHD. Prolonged observation may be needed to differentiate fidgetiness from bouts of multiple tics. Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Specific learning disorder

Children with specific learning disorder may appear inattentive because of frustration, lack of interest, or limited ability. However, inattention in individuals with a specific learning disorder who do not have ADHD is not impairing outside of academic work.

Intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder)

Symptoms of ADHD are common among children placed in academic settings that are inappropriate to their intellectual ability. In such cases, the symptoms are not evident during non-academic tasks. A diagnosis of ADHD in intellectual disability requires that inattention or hyperactivity be excessive for mental age.

Autism spectrum disorder

Individuals with ADHD and those with autism spectrum disorder exhibit inattention, social dysfunction, and difficult-to-manage behavior. The social dysfunction and peer rejection seen in individuals with ADHD must be distinguished from the social disengagement, isolation, and indifference to facial and tonal communication cues seen in individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Children with autism spectrum disorder may display tantrums because of an inability to tolerate a change from their expected course of events. In contrast, children with ADHD may misbehave or have a tantrum during a major transition because of impulsivity or poor self-control.

Reactive attachment disorder

Children with reactive attachment disorder may show social disinhibition, but not the full ADHD symptom cluster, and display other features such as a lack of enduring relationships that are not characteristic of ADHD.

Anxiety disorders

ADHD shares symptoms of inattention with anxiety disorders. Individuals with ADHD are inattentive because of their attraction to external stimuli, new activities, or preoccupation with enjoyable activities. This is distinguished from the inattention due to worry and rumination seen in anxiety disorders. Restlessness might be seen in anxiety disorders. However, in ADHD, the symptom is not associated with worry and rumination.

Depressive disorders

Individuals with depressive disorders may present with inability to concentrate. However, poor concentration in mood disorders becomes prominent only during a depressive episode.

Bipolar disorder

Individuals with bipolar disorder may have increased activity, poor concentration, and increased impulsivity, but these features are episodic, occurring several days at a time. In bipolar disorder, increased impulsivity or inattention is accompanied by elevated mood, grandiosity, and other specific bipolar features. Children with ADHD may show significant changes in mood within the same day; such lability is distinct from a manic episode, which must last 4 or more days to be a clinical indicator of bipolar disorder, even in children. Bipolar disorder is rare in preadolescents, even when severe irritability and anger are prominent, whereas ADHD is common among children and adolescents who display excessive anger and irritability.

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder

Disruptive mood dysregulation disorder is characterized by pervasive irritability, and intolerance of frustration, but impulsiveness and disorganized attention are not essential features. However, most children and adolescents with the disorder have symptoms that also meet criteria for ADHD, which is diagnosed separately.

Substance use disorders

Differentiating ADHD from substance use disorders may be problematic if the first presentation of ADHD symptoms follows the onset of abuse or frequent use. Clear evidence of ADHD before substance misuse from informants or previous records may be essential for differential diagnosis. Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Personality disorders

In adolescents and adults, it may be difficult to distinguish ADHD from borderline, narcissistic, and other personality disorders. All these disorders tend to share the features of disorganization, social intrusiveness, emotional dysregulation, and cognitive dysregulation. However, ADHD is not characterized by fear of abandonment, self-injury, extreme ambivalence, or other features of personality disorder. It may take extended clinical observation, informant interview, or detailed history to distinguish impulsive, socially intrusive, or inappropriate behavior from narcissistic, aggressive, or domineering behavior to make this differential diagnosis.

Psychotic disorders

ADHD is not diagnosed if the symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity occur exclusively during the course of a psychotic disorder.

Medication-induced symptoms of ADHD

Symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, or impulsivity attributable to the use of medication (e.g., bronchodilators, isoniazid, neuroleptics [resulting in akathisia], thyroid replacement medication) are diagnosed as other specified or unspecified other (or unknown) substance–related disorders.

Neurocognitive disorders

Early major neurocognitive disorder (dementia) and/or mild neurocognitive disorder are not known to be associated with ADHD but may present with similar clinical features. These conditions are distinguished from ADHD by their late onset.

Comorbidity

In clinical settings, comorbid disorders are frequent in individuals whose symptoms meet criteria for ADHD. In the general population, oppositional defiant disorder co-occurs with ADHD in approximately half of children with the combined presentation and about a quarter with the predominantly inattentive presentation. Conduct disorder co-occurs in about a quarter of children or adolescents with the combined presentation, depending on age and setting(Willcutt et al. 2012). Most children and adolescents with disruptive mood dysregulation disorder have symptoms that also meet criteria for ADHD; a lesser percentage of children with ADHD have symptoms that meet criteria for disruptive mood dysregulation disorder. Specific learning disorder commonly co-occurs with ADHD. Anxiety disorders and major depressive disorder occur in a minority of individuals with ADHD but more often than in the general population(Kessler et al. 2006; Willcutt et al. 2012). Intermittent explosive disorder occurs in a minority of adults with ADHD, but at rates above population levels. Although substance use disorders are relatively more frequent among adults with ADHD in the general population, the disorders are present in only a minority of adults with ADHD. In adults, antisocial and other personality disorders may co-occur with ADHD. Other disorders that may co-occur with ADHD include obsessive-compulsive disorder, tic disorders, and autism spectrum disorder.Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Other S pecifie d Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

314.01 (F90.8)

This category applies to presentations in which symptoms characteristic of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder that cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational or other important areas of functioning predominate but do not meet the full criteria for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or any of the disorders in the neurodevelopmental disorders diagnostic class. The other specified attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder category is used in situations in which the clinician chooses to communicate the specific reason that the presentation does not meet the criteria for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or any specific neurodevelopmental disorder. This is done by recording “other specified attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder” followed by the specific reason (e.g., “with insufficient inattention symptoms”).

Unspecified Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactivity Disorder

314.01 (F90.9)

This category applies to presentations in which symptoms characteristic of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder that cause clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning predominate but do not meet the full criteria for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or any of the disorders in the neurodevelopmental disorders diagnostic class. The unspecified attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder category is used in situations in which the clinician chooses not to specify the reason that the criteria are not met for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder or for a specific neurodevelopmental disorder, and includes presentations in which there is insufficient information to make a more specific diagnosis.

Specific Learning Disorder

Specific Learning Disorder

Diagnostic Criteria

1. Difficulties learning and using academic skills, as indicated by the presence of at least one of the following symptoms that have persisted for at least 6 months, despite the provision of interventions that target those difficulties:
   1. Inaccurate or slow and effortful word reading (e.g., reads single words aloud incorrectly or slowly and hesitantly, frequently guesses words, has difficulty sounding out words).
   2. Difficulty understanding the meaning of what is read (e.g., may read text accurately but not understand the sequence, relationships, inferences, or deeper meanings of what is read).
   3. Difficulties with spelling (e.g., may add, omit, or substitute vowels or consonants).
   4. Difficulties with written expression (e.g., makes multiple grammatical or punctuation errors within sentences; employs poor paragraph organization; written expression of ideas lacks clarity).
   5. Difficulties mastering number sense, number facts, or calculation (e.g., has poor understanding of numbers, their magnitude, and relationships; counts on fingers to add single-digit numbers instead of recalling the math fact as peers do; gets lost in the midst of arithmetic computation and may switch procedures).
   6. Difficulties with mathematical reasoning (e.g., has severe difficulty applying mathematical concepts, facts, or procedures to solve quantitative problems).
2. The affected academic skills are substantially and quantifiably below those expected for the individual’s chronological age, and cause significant interference with academic or occupational performance, or with activities of daily living, as confirmed by individually administered standardized achievement measures and comprehensive clinical assessment. For individuals age 17 years and older, a documented history of impairing learning difficulties may be substituted for the standardized assessment.
3. The learning difficulties begin during school-age years but may not become fully manifest until the demands for those affected academic skills exceed the individual’s limited capacities (e.g., as in timed tests, reading or writing lengthy complex reports for a tight deadline, excessively heavy academic loads).
4. The learning difficulties are not better accounted for by intellectual disabilities, uncorrected visual or auditory acuity, other mental or neurological disorders, psychosocial adversity, lack of proficiency in the language of academic instruction, or inadequate educational instruction.

Note: The four diagnostic criteria are to be met based on a clinical synthesis of the individual’s history (developmental, medical, family, educational), school reports, and psychoeducational assessment.

• Coding note:Specify all academic domains and subskills that are impaired. When more than one domain is impaired, each one should be coded individually according to the following specifiers. Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Specify if:

• 00 (F81.0) With impairment in reading:
  • Word reading accuracy
  • Reading rate or fluency
  • Reading comprehension
  • Note:Dyslexia is an alternative term used to refer to a pattern of learning difficulties characterized by problems with accurate or fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and poor spelling abilities. If dyslexia is used to specify this particular pattern of difficulties, it is important also to specify any additional difficulties that are present, such as difficulties with reading comprehension or math reasoning.
• 2 (F81.81) With impairment in written expression:
  • Spelling accuracy
  • Grammar and punctuation accuracy
  • Clarity or organization of written expression
• 1 (F81.2) With impairment in mathematics:
  • Number sense
  • Memorization of arithmetic facts
  • Accurate or fluent calculation
  • Accurate math reasoning
  • Note:Dyscalculia is an alternative term used to refer to a pattern of difficulties characterized by problems processing numerical information, learning arithmetic facts, and performing accurate or fluent calculations. If dyscalculia is used to specify this particular pattern of mathematic difficulties, it is important also to specify any additional difficulties that are present, such as difficulties with math reasoning or word reasoning accuracy.

Specify current severity:

• Mild:Some difficulties learning skills in one or two academic domains, but of mild enough severity that the individual may be able to compensate or function well when provided with appropriate accommodations or support services, especially during the school years.
• Moderate:Marked difficulties learning skills in one or more academic domains, so that the individual is unlikely to become proficient without some intervals of intensive and specialized teaching during the school years. Some accommodations or supportive services at least part of the day at school, in the workplace, or at home may be needed to complete activities accurately and efficiently.
• Severe:Severe difficulties learning skills, affecting several academic domains, so that the individual is unlikely to learn those skills without ongoing intensive individualized and specialized teaching for most of the school years. Even with an array of appropriate accommodations or services at home, at school, or in the workplace, the individual may not be able to complete all activities efficiently.

Recording Procedures

Each impaired academic domain and subskill of specific learning disorder should be recorded. Because of ICD coding requirements, impairments in reading, impairments in written expression, and impairments in mathematics, with their corresponding impairments in subskills, must be coded separately. For example, impairments in reading and mathematics and impairments in the subskills of reading rate or fluency, reading comprehension, accurate or fluent calculation, and accurate math reasoning would be coded and recorded as 315.00 (F81.0) specific learning disorder with impairment in reading, with impairment in reading rate or fluency and impairment in reading comprehension; 315.1 (F81.2) specific learning disorder with impairment in mathematics, with impairment in accurate or fluent calculation and impairment in accurate math reasoning. Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Diagnostic Features

Specific learning disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a biological origin that is the basis for abnormalities at a cognitive level that are associated with the behavioral signs of the disorder. The biological origin includes an interaction of genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors, which affect the brain’s ability to perceive or process verbal or nonverbal information efficiently and accurately.

One essential feature of specific learning disorder is persistent difficulties learning keystone academic skills (Criterion A), with onset during the years of formal schooling (i.e., the developmental period). Key academic skills include reading of single words accurately and fluently, reading comprehension, written expression and spelling, arithmetic calculation, and mathematical reasoning (solving mathematical problems). In contrast to talking or walking, which are acquired developmental milestones that emerge with brain maturation, academic skills (e.g., reading, spelling, writing, mathematics) have to be taught and learned explicitly. Specific learning disorder disrupts the normal pattern of learning academic skills; it is not simply a consequence of lack of opportunity of learning or inadequate instruction. Difficulties mastering these key academic skills may also impede learning in other academic subjects (e.g., history, science, social studies), but those problems are attributable to difficulties learning the underlying academic skills. Difficulties learning to map letters with the sounds of one’s language—to read printed words (often called dyslexia)—is one of the most common manifestations of specific learning disorder. The learning difficulties manifest as a range of observable, descriptive behaviors or symptoms (as listed in Criteria A1–A6). These clinical symptoms may be observed, probed by means of the clinical interview, or ascertained from school reports, rating scales, or descriptions in previous educational or psychological assessments. The learning difficulties are persistent, not transitory. In children and adolescents, persistence is defined as restricted progress in learning (i.e., no evidence that the individual is catching up with classmates) for at least 6 months despite the provision of extra help at home or school. For example, difficulties learning to read single words that do not fully or rapidly remit with the provision of instruction in phonological skills or word identification strategies may indicate a specific learning disorder. Evidence of persistent learning difficulties may be derived from cumulative school reports, portfolios of the child’s evaluated work, curriculum-based measures, or clinical interview. In adults, persistent difficulty refers to ongoing difficulties in literacy or numeracy skills that manifest during childhood or adolescence, as indicated by cumulative evidence from school reports, evaluated portfolios of work, or previous assessments. Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

A second key feature is that the individual’s performance of the affected academic skills is well below average for age (Criterion B). One robust clinical indicator of difficulties learning academic skills is low academic achievement for age or average achievement that is sustainable only by extraordinarily high levels of effort or support. In children, the low academic skills cause significant interference in school performance (as indicated by school reports and teacher’s grades or ratings). Another clinical indicator, particularly in adults, is avoidance of activities that require the academic skills. Also in adulthood, low academic skills interfere with occupational performance or everyday activities requiring those skills (as indicated by self-report or report by others). However, this criterion also requires psychometric evidence from an individually administered, psychometrically sound and culturally appropriate test of academic achievement that is norm-referenced or criterion-referenced. Academic skills are distributed along a continuum, so there is no natural cutpoint that can be used to differentiate individuals with and without specific learning disorder. Thus, any threshold used to specify what constitutes significantly low academic achievement (e.g., academic skills well below age expectation) is to a large extent arbitrary. Low achievement scores on one or more standardized tests or subtests within an academic domain (i.e., at least 1.5 standard deviations [SD] below the population mean for age, which translates to a standard score of 78 or less, which is below the 7th percentile) are needed for the greatest diagnostic certainty. However, precise scores will vary according to the particular standardized tests that are used. On the basis of clinical judgment, a more lenient threshold may be used (e.g., 1.0–2.5 SD below the population mean for age), when learning difficulties are supported by converging evidence from clinical assessment, academic history, school reports, or test scores. Moreover, since standardized tests are not available in all languages, the diagnosis may then be based in part on clinical judgment of scores on available test measures.

A third core feature is that the learning difficulties are readily apparent in the early school years in most individuals (Criterion C). However, in others, the learning difficulties may not manifest fully until later school years, by which time learning demands have increased and exceed the individual’s limited capacities.

Another key diagnostic feature is that the learning difficulties are considered “specific,” for four reasons. First, they are not attributable to intellectual disabilities (intellectual disability [intellectual developmental disorder]); global developmental delay; hearing or vision disorders, or neurological or motor disorders) (Criterion D). Specific learning disorder affects learning in individuals who otherwise demonstrate normal levels of intellectual functioning (generally estimated by an IQ score of greater than about 70 [± 5 points allowing for measurement error]). The phrase “unexpected academic underachievement” is often cited as the defining characteristic of specific learning disorder in that the specific learning disabilities are not part of a more general learning difficulty as manifested in intellectual disability or global developmental delay. Specific learning disorder may also occur in individuals identified as intellectually “gifted.” These individuals may be able to sustain apparently adequate academic functioning by using compensatory strategies, extraordinarily high effort, or support, until the learning demands or assessment procedures (e.g., timed tests) pose barriers to their demonstrating their learning or accomplishing required tasks(National Joint Commission on Learning Disabilities 2011). Second, the learning difficulty cannot be attributed to more general external factors, such as economic or environmental disadvantage, chronic absenteeism, or lack of education as typically provided in the individual’s community context. Third, the learning difficulty cannot be attributed to a neurological (e.g., pediatric stroke) or motor disorders or to vision or hearing disorders, which are often associated with problems learning academic skills but are distinguishable by presence of neurological signs. Finally, the learning difficulty may be restricted to one academic skill or domain (e.g., reading single words, retrieving or calculating number facts).

Comprehensive assessment is required. Specific learning disorder can only be diagnosed after formal education starts but can be diagnosed at any point afterward in children, adolescents, or adults, providing there is evidence of onset during the years of formal schooling (i.e., the developmental period). No single data source is sufficient for a diagnosis of specific learning disorder. Rather, specific learning disorder is a clinical diagnosis based on a synthesis of the individual’s medical, developmental, educational, and family history; the history of the learning difficulty, including its previous and current manifestation; the impact of the difficulty on academic, occupational, or social functioning; previous or current school reports; portfolios of work requiring academic skills; curriculum-based assessments; and previous or current scores from individual standardized tests of academic achievement. If an intellectual, sensory, neurological, or motor disorder is suspected, then the clinical assessment for specific learning disorder should also include methods appropriate for these disorders. Thus, comprehensive assessment will involve professionals with expertise in specific learning disorder and psychological/cognitive assessment. Since specific learning disorder typically persists into adulthood, reassessment is rarely necessary, unless indicated by marked changes in the learning difficulties (amelioration or worsening) or requested for specific purposes. Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Associated Features Supporting Diagnosis

Specific learning disorder is frequently but not invariably preceded, in preschool years, by delays in attention, language, or motor skills that may persist and co-occur with specific learning disorder. An uneven profile of abilities is common, such as above-average abilities in drawing, design, and other visuospatial abilities, but slow, effortful, and inaccurate reading and poor reading comprehension and written expression. Individuals with specific learning disorder typically (but not invariably) exhibit poor performance on psychological tests of cognitive processing. However, it remains unclear whether these cognitive abnormalities are the cause, correlate, or consequence of the learning difficulties. Also, although cognitive deficits associated with difficulties learning to read words are well documented, those associated with other manifestations of specific learning disorder (e.g., reading comprehension, arithmetic computation, written expression) are underspecified or unknown. Moreover, individuals with similar behavioral symptoms or test scores are found to have a variety of cognitive deficits, and many of these processing deficits are also found in other neurodevelopmental disorders (e.g., attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], autistic spectrum disorder, communication disorders, developmental coordination disorder). Thus, assessment of cognitive processing deficits is not required for diagnostic assessment. Specific learning disorder is associated with increased risk for suicidal ideation and suicide attempts in children, adolescents, and adults(Daniel et al. 2006; Svetaz et al. 2000).

There are no known biological markers of specific learning disorder. As a group, individuals with the disorder show circumscribed alterations in cognitive processing and brain structure and function. Genetic differences are also evident at the group level. But cognitive testing, neuroimaging, or genetic testing are not useful for diagnosis at this time(Butterworth et al. 2011; Peterson and Pennington 2012; Shaywitz and Shaywitz 2008).

Prevalence

The prevalence of specific learning disorder across the academic domains of reading, writing, and mathematics is 5%–15% among school-age children across different languages and cultures(Altarac and Saroha 2007; Barbaresi et al. 2005; Katusic et al. 2009). Prevalence in adults is unknown but appears to be approximately 4%.

Development and Course

Onset, recognition, and diagnosis of specific learning disorder usually occurs during the elementary school years when children are required to learn to read, spell, write, and learn mathematics. However, precursors such as language delays or deficits, difficulties in rhyming or counting, or difficulties with fine motor skills required for writing commonly occur in early childhood before the start of formal schooling(National Joint Commission on Learning Disabilities 2011). Manifestations may be behavioral (e.g., a reluctance to engage in learning; oppositional behavior). Specific learning disorder is lifelong, but the course and clinical expression are variable, in part depending on the interactions among the task demands of the environment, the range and severity of the individual’s learning difficulties, the individual’s learning abilities, comorbidity, and the available support systems and intervention. Nonetheless, problems with reading fluency and comprehension, spelling, written expression, and numeracy skills in everyday life typically persist into adulthood(Geary 2011; Gerber 2012).

Changes in manifestation of symptoms occur with age, so that an individual may have a persistent or shifting array of learning difficulties across the lifespan(Gerber 2012; Mugnaini et al. 2009).

Examples of symptoms that may be observed among preschool-age children include a lack of interest in playing games with language sounds (e.g., repetition, rhyming), and they may have trouble learning nursery rhymes. Preschool children with specific learning disorder may frequently use baby talk, mispronounce words, and have trouble remembering names of letters, numbers, or days of the week. They may fail to recognize letters in their own names and have trouble learning to count. Kindergarten-age children with specific learning disorder may be unable to recognize and write letters, may be unable to write their own names, or may use invented spelling. They may have trouble breaking down spoken words into syllables (e.g., “cowboy” into “cow” and “boy”) and trouble recognizing words that rhyme (e.g., cat, bat, hat). Kindergarten-age children also may have trouble connecting letters with their sounds (e.g., letter b makes the sound /b/) and may be unable to recognize phonemes (e.g., do not know which in a set of words [e.g., dog, man, car] starts with the same sound as “cat”).

Specific learning disorder in elementary school–age children typically manifests as marked difficulty learning letter-sound correspondence (particularly in English-speaking children), fluent word decoding, spelling, or math facts; reading aloud is slow, inaccurate, and effortful, and some children struggle to understand the magnitude that a spoken or written number represents. Children in primary grades (grades 1–3) may continue to have problems recognizing and manipulating phonemes, be unable to read common one-syllable words (such as mat or top), and be unable recognize common irregularly spelled words (e.g., said, two). They may commit reading errors that indicate problems in connecting sounds and letters (e.g., “big” for “got”) and have difficulty sequencing numbers and letters. Children in grades 1-3 also may have difficulty remembering number facts or arithmetic procedures for adding, subtracting, and so forth, and may complain that reading or arithmetic is hard and avoid doing it. Children with specific learning disorder in the middle grades (grades 4–6) may mispronounce or skip parts of long, multisyllable words (e.g., say “conible” for “convertible,” “aminal” for “animal”) and confuse words that sound alike (e.g., “tornado” for “volcano”). They may have trouble remembering dates, names, and telephone numbers and may have trouble completing homework or tests on time. Children in the middle grades also may have poor comprehension with or without slow, effortful, and inaccurate reading, and they may have trouble reading small function words (e.g., that, the, an, in). They may have very poor spelling and poor written work. They may get the first part of a word correctly, then guess wildly (e.g., read “clover” as “clock”), and may express fear of reading aloud or refuse to read aloud.

By contrast, adolescents may have mastered word decoding, but reading remains slow and effortful, and they are likely to show marked problems in reading comprehension and written expression (including poor spelling) and poor mastery of math facts or mathematical problem solving. During adolescence and into adulthood, individuals with specific learning disorder may continue to make numerous spelling mistakes and read single words and connected text slowly and with much effort, with trouble pronouncing multisyllable words. They may frequently need to reread material to understand or get the main point and have trouble making inferences from written text. Adolescents and adults may avoid activities that demand reading or arithmetic (reading for pleasure, reading instructions). Adults with specific learning disorder have ongoing spelling problems, slow and effortful reading, or problems making important inferences from numerical information in work-related written documents. They may avoid both leisure and work-related activities that demand reading or writing or use alternative approaches to access print (e.g., text-to-speech/speech-to-text software, audiobooks, audiovisual media).

An alternative clinical expression is that of circumscribed learning difficulties that persist across the lifespan, such as an inability to master the basic sense of number (e.g., to know which of a pair of numbers or dots represents the larger magnitude), or lack of proficiency in word identification or spelling. Avoidance of or reluctance to engage in activities requiring academic skills is common in children, adolescents, and adults. Episodes of severe anxiety or anxiety disorders, including somatic complaints or panic attacks, are common across the lifespan and accompany both the circumscribed and the broader expression of learning difficulties(Klassen et al. 2011; Nelson and Harwood 2011).

Risk and Prognostic Factors

Environmental

Prematurity or very low birth weight increases the risk for specific learning disorder (Aarnoudse-Moens et al. 2009), as does prenatal exposure to nicotine(Piper et al. 2012).

Genetic and physiological

Specific learning disorder appears to aggregate in families, particularly when affecting reading, mathematics, and spelling. The relative risk of specific learning disorder in reading or mathematics is substantially higher (e.g., 4–8 times and 5–10 times higher, respectively) in first-degree relatives of individuals with these learning difficulties compared with those without them(Shalev et al. 2001; Willcutt et al. 2010). Family history of reading difficulties (dyslexia) and parental literacy skills predict literacy problems or specific learning disorder in offspring, indicating the combined role of genetic and environmental factors(Snowling et al. 2007; Torppa et al. 2011).

There is high heritability for both reading ability and reading disability in alphabetic and nonalphabetic languages, including high heritability for most manifestations of learning abilities and disabilities (e.g., heritability estimate values greater than 0.6). Covariation between various manifestations of learning difficulties is high, suggesting that genes related to one presentation are highly correlated with genes related to another manifestation(Haworth et al. 2009; Landerl and Moll 2010; Willcutt et al. 2010).

Course modifiers

Marked problems with inattentive behavior in preschool years is predictive of later difficulties in reading and mathematics (but not necessarily specific learning disorder) and nonresponse to effective academic interventions(Breslau et al. 2009; Rabiner and Malone 2004). Delay or disorders in speech or language, or impaired cognitive processing (e.g., phonological awareness, working memory, rapid serial naming) in preschool years, predicts later specific learning disorder in reading and written expression(Lyytinen et al. 2004). Comorbidity with ADHD is predictive of worse mental health outcome than that associated with specific learning disorder without ADHD (Mugnaini et al. 2009; Sexton et al. 2012). Systematic, intensive, individualized instruction, using evidence-based interventions, may improve or ameliorate the learning difficulties in some individuals or promote the use of compensatory strategies in others, thereby mitigating the otherwise poor outcomes(Shaywitz and Shaywitz 2008). Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Culture-Related Diagnostic Issues

Specific learning disorder occurs across languages, cultures, races, and socioeconomic conditions but may vary in its manifestation according to the nature of the spoken and written symbol systems and cultural and educational practices(Goswami et al. 2011). For example, the cognitive processing requirements of reading and of working with numbers vary greatly across orthographies. In the English language, the observable hallmark clinical symptom of difficulties learning to read is inaccurate and slow reading of single words; in other alphabetic languages that have more direct mapping between sounds and letters (e.g., Spanish, German) and in non-alphabetic languages (e.g., Chinese, Japanese), the hallmark feature is slow but accurate reading. In English-language learners, assessment should include consideration of whether the source of reading difficulties is a limited proficiency with English or a specific learning disorder. Risk factors for specific learning disorder in English-language learners include a family history of specific learning disorder or language delay in the native language, as well as learning difficulties in English and failure to catch up with peers. If there is suspicion of cultural or language differences (e.g., as in an English-language learner), the assessment needs to take into account the individual’s language proficiency in his or her first or native language as well as in the second language (in this example, English). Also, assessment should consider the linguistic and cultural context in which the individual is living, as well as his or her educational and learning history in the original culture and language.

Gender-Related Diagnostic Issues

Specific learning disorder is more common in males than in females (ratios range from about 2:1 to 3:1) and cannot be attributed to factors such as ascertainment bias, definitional or measurement variation, language, race, or socioeconomic status(Reigosa-Crespo et al. 2012; Rutter et al. 2004).

Functional Consequences of Specific Learning Disorder

Specific learning disorder can have negative functional consequences across the lifespan, including lower academic attainment, higher rates of high school dropout, lower rates of postsecondary education, high levels of psychological distress and poorer overall mental health, higher rates of unemployment and under-employment, and lower incomes(Gerber 2012). School dropout and co-occurring depressive symptoms increase the risk for poor mental health outcomes, including suicidality, whereas high levels of social or emotional support predict better mental health outcomes(Mugnaini et al. 2009; Svetaz et al. 2000).

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Differential Diagnosis

Normal variations in academic attainment

Specific learning disorder is distinguished from normal variations in academic attainment due to external factors (e.g., lack of educational opportunity, consistently poor instruction, learning in a second language), because the learning difficulties persist in the presence of adequate educational opportunity and exposure to the same instruction as the peer group, and competency in the language of instruction, even when it is different from one’s primary spoken language.

Intellectual disability (intellectual developmental disorder)

Specific learning disorder differs from general learning difficulties associated with intellectual disability, because the learning difficulties occur in the presence of normal levels of intellectual functioning (i.e., IQ score of at least 70 ± 5). If intellectual disability is present, specific learning disorder can be diagnosed only when the learning difficulties are in excess of those usually associated with the intellectual disability.

Learning difficulties due to neurological or sensory disorders

Specific learning disorder is distinguished from learning difficulties due to neurological or sensory disorders (e.g., pediatric stroke, traumatic brain injury, hearing impairment, vision impairment), because in these cases there are abnormal findings on neurological examination.

Neurocognitive disorders

Specific learning disorder is distinguished from learning problems associated with neurodegenerative cognitive disorders, because in specific learning disorder the clinical expression of specific learning difficulties occurs during the developmental period, and the difficulties do not manifest as a marked decline from a former state.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Specific learning disorder is distinguished from the poor academic performance associated with ADHD, because in the latter condition the problems may not necessarily reflect specific difficulties in learning academic skills but rather may reflect difficulties in performing those skills. However, the co-occurrence of specific learning disorder and ADHD is more frequent than expected by chance. If criteria for both disorders are met, both diagnoses can be given.

Psychotic disorders

Specific learning disorder is distinguished from the academic and cognitive-processing difficulties associated with schizophrenia or psychosis, because with these disorders there is a decline (often rapid) in these functional domains.

Comorbidity

Specific learning disorder commonly co-occurs with neurodevelopmental (e.g., ADHD, communication disorders, developmental coordination disorder, autistic spectrum disorder) or other mental disorders (e.g., anxiety disorders, depressive and bipolar disorders). These comorbidities do not necessarily exclude the diagnosis specific learning disorder but may make testing and differential diagnosis more difficult, because each of the co-occurring disorders independently interferes with the execution of activities of daily living, including learning. Thus, clinical judgment is required to attribute such impairment to learning difficulties. If there is an indication that another diagnosis could account for the difficulties learning keystone academic skills described in Criterion A, specific learning disorder should not be diagnosed.

Reference

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Neurodevelopmental disorders. In Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author. doi:10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596.dsm01

 

Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

The human brain only constitutes approximately 2% of an individual’s total body weight, a percentage that pales in comparison to the brain’s level of importance in human development (Koch, 2016). Although externally protected by layers of membranes as well as the skull, the brain is not very resistant to damage. Damage to the brain may compromise its functionality, which may, in turn, lead to neurodevelopmental disorders in childhood and adolescence or neurocognitive disorders for any number of reasons across the lifespan.

• Apply concepts, theories, and principles related to patient interviewing, diagnostic reasoning, and recording patient information
• Formulate differential diagnoses using DSM-5 criteria for patients with neurocognitive and neurodevelopmental disorders across the lifespan. Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Assignment: Assessing and Diagnosing Patients With Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Neurodevelopmental disorders begin in the developmental period of childhood and may continue through adulthood. They may range from the very specific to a general or global impairment, and often co-occur (APA, 2013). They include specific learning and language disorders, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), autism spectrum disorders, and intellectual disabilities. Neurocognitive disorders, on the other hand, represent a decline in one or more areas of prior mental function that is significant enough to impact independent functioning. They may occur at any time in life and be caused by factors such brain injury; diseases such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s, or Huntington’s; infection; or stroke, among others.

For this Assignment, you will assess a patient in a case study who presents with a neurocognitive or neurodevelopmental disorder.

• Consider what history would be necessary to collect from this patient.
• Consider what interview questions you would need to ask this patient.
• Identify at least three possible differential diagnoses for the patient.

Complete and submit your Comprehensive Psychiatric Evaluation, including your differential diagnosis and critical-thinking process to formulate primary diagnosis.
Incorporate the following into your responses in the template:

• Subjective: What details did the patient provide regarding their chief complaint and symptomology to derive your differential diagnosis? What is the duration and severity of their symptoms? How are their symptoms impacting their functioning in life?
• Objective: What observations did you make during the psychiatric assessment?
• Assessment: Discuss the patient’s mental status examination results. What were your differential diagnoses? Provide a minimum of three possible diagnoses with supporting evidence, listed in order from highest priority to lowest priority. Compare the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria for each differential diagnosis and explain what DSM-5 criteria rules out the differential diagnosis to find an accurate diagnosis. Explain the critical-thinking process that led you to the primary diagnosis you selected. Include pertinent positives and pertinent negatives for the specific patient case.
• Reflection notes: What would you do differently with this client if you could conduct the session over? Also include in your reflection a discussion related to legal/ethical considerations (demonstrate critical thinking beyond confidentiality and consent for treatment!), health promotion and disease prevention taking into consideration patient factors (such as age, ethnic group, etc.), PMH, and other risk factors (e.g., socioeconomic, cultural background, etc.).

CASE STUDY

Name: Harold Griffin Gender: male Age:58 years old T- 98.8 P- 86 R 18 134/88 Ht 5’11 Wt 180lbs Background: Has bachelor’s degree in engineering. He is homosexual and dates casually, never married, no children. Has one younger sister. Sleeps 4-6 hours, appetite good. Denied legal issues; MOCA 27/30 difficulty with attention and delayed recall; ASRS-5 20/24; denied hx of drug use; enjoys one scotch drink on the weekends with a cigar. Allergies Morphine; history HTN blood pressure controlled with losartan 100mg daily, angina prescribed ASA 81mg po daily, metoprolol 25mg twice daily. Hypertriglyceridemia prescribed fenofibrate 160mg daily, has BPH prescribed tamsulosin 0.4mg po bedtime. Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

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00:00:00TRANSCRIPT OF VIDEO FILE:

00:00:00______________________________________________________________________________

00:00:00BEGIN TRANSCRIPT:

00:00:00[sil.]

00:00:15OFF CAMERA So, you told your supervisor you were having difficulty with concentration, and then it was your supervisor who set up this appointment, right, is it?

00:00:25HAROLD Yeah, I, I work at this large architectural engineering firm and it’s all great. Except, they’ve accelerated the deadlines now and it just puts a lot of pressure on. And I, I just can’t concentrate. I mean, everyone else is, doesn’t have a problem with it. But, but I just, I just can’t seem to be able to do the same job they’re doing.

00:00:50OFF CAMERA Okay, tell me about your problem with concentration.

00:00:55HAROLD Well, um, you know it’s just… Perfect example is, is they wanted me to design um, air ducts.

00:01:05OFF CAMERA Right.

00:01:05HAROLD Air ducts, simple. But I designed them through solid wall, a fire wall, and a supporting wall and I didn’t even realize what I was doing.

00:01:15OFF CAMERA Uh-huh.

00:01:15HAROLD You know, I mean, um, I’m making silly mistakes like that because, another time we had these windows, we already bought them, design, beautiful, they’re going to be in this entire building.

00:01:30OFF CAMERA Right.

00:01:30HAROLD Every floor. Well, I drew the window opening way too small. Now, I mean, if that would have gone ahead, it would have cost millions. I just, it’s, it’s just silly things like that.

00:01:45OFF CAMERA Uh-huh, is this a new kind of problem for you?

00:01:45HAROLD Well, I mean, I didn’t seem to have a problem when everything was relaxed, and the deadlines were normal.

00:01:50OFF CAMERA Right.

00:01:55HAROLD I could do the job. Everything was fine. But now we’re on these, these ridiculously tight deadlines and, and I just, can’t seem to do it. Everyone else can. It’s, there’s not a problem for them. And I end up like I’m not pulling my weight.

00:02:10OFF CAMERA Uh-huh.

00:02:10HAROLD And they think that and it’s true, I’m not.

00:02:10OFF CAMERA Now did you have these, uh, similar kind of problems back in school?

00:02:15HAROLD Well, yeah, I mean, in school everyone would go to the library to cram for big exams, so, I mean.

00:02:20OFF CAMERA Right.

00:02:20HAROLD That was a normal thing. And, yeah, I’d go but I’d end up looking out the window. Look it’s snowing, oh, it’s spring time. I’ll go for a walk. And, and if someone is whispering in a library well, I have to go to the other side. All my friends could study anywhere.

00:02:35OFF CAMERA Uh-huh, but, what other kind of difficulties do you seem to have?

00:02:40HAROLD Well, at the job we have, these uh, lectures, you know.

00:02:45OFF CAMERA Right.

00:02:45HAROLD We’d get together, it’s groups. This is the lectures by the chief of the department gets together with all the architects and engineers and he talks about the mission of the day. What we’re trying to work for, our goals.

00:02:55OFF CAMERA Right.

00:03:00HAROLD Do I listen? I’m thinking, maybe, my dog needs a bath. Or what am I going to have for lunch? Or, you know, anything other than what he’s saying.

00:03:05OFF CAMERA Mm-hmm.

00:03:10HAROLD And because of that, you know, it’s not a good idea.

00:03:15OFF CAMERA So, so, is it difficult to sit and listen?

00:03:20HAROLD Yeah, I mean, okay, we were suppose to be designing this other, on top of this penthouse, this, kind of, a patio, party area.

00:03:30OFF CAMERA Right.

00:03:30HAROLD And the gutters around it just to make sure everything was very comfortable for everyone. Well, I got up there and I’m designing and the gutters are here, and no, wait a minute, there’s Italian, tile floor. Doesn’t look like it’s tilted the correct way. So I started studying that and there were already two people assigned to study that. To fix that problem, not me.

00:03:50OFF CAMERA Mm-hmm.

00:03:55HAROLD I got in a lot of trouble for that one.

00:03:55OFF CAMERA Do you have any problems organizing?

00:04:00HAROLD At home or the office?

00:04:00OFF CAMERA Uh, either.

00:04:05HAROLD I’m a bit of a mess. I mean, and I’m messy. I will forget my shoes, my socks, my phone, my jacket, I, I can’t find them. I’m not that organized. And I have a calendar. One of my coworkers, actually bought me a calendar to motivate me.

00:04:20OFF CAMERA Yeah.

00:04:25HAROLD To get more organized. So, I started writing down all the important dates and events, but then do I ever look at that calendar? No, I don’t. So, it’s a complete waste of time.

00:04:35OFF CAMERA What about problems paying bills?

00:04:40HAROLD Bills, I mean, yeah they get paid. After two or three times of the threatening calls or letters. And then I have to pay the penalties.

00:04:50OFF CAMERA Hmm, what about hyperactivity?

00:04:50HAROLD You know, I mean, I’m, sometimes I’m a little more uncomfortable in a chair or you know. But I don’t think that’s that big a deal. I mean, I used to be a lot worse. I mean, uh, there was a time when I was in school, I would get marked down for citizenship because I never raised my hand and I talked out of class and, and I just, couldn’t seem to stay focused. But I’m a lot better now.  Neurocognitive and Neurodevelopmental Disorders

00:05:20OFF CAMERA Mm-hmm, were you ever um, treated with medications or behavioral therapies for ADHD?

00:05:25HAROLD No, no. My mother threatened that one time, but I was never evaluated. Never went, uh, I’m kind of amazed she never just dragged me into a doctor’s office, but she never did.

00:05:40OFF CAMERA Do you drink any caffeinated drinks?

00:05:45HAROLD Coffee, soda, you know, once in a while. But when I was a kid, my mother said no caffeine, no sugar, cause you’ll climb the walls. I was already doing it anyway and so she, I uh, once and a while I’ll have a little caffeine now and it kind of helps me focus a little but, sugar, I stay away from that. It’s just not a good idea.

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