Nursing homework help
Nursing homework help
Mayelin Ruiz
Atrophy
Atrophy is the decrease in the size of a tissue, cell, organ, or any body part. The term suggests that the part of the body that was atrophied was a normal size according to the individual’s age and circumstance before the decrement occurred.
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Physiologic atrophy
Physiologic atrophy is a type of atrophy where a body part decreases in size due to insufficient use of muscle. This type of atrophy is caused by physical inactiveness and therefore can be reversed through better and proper nutrition and sufficient exercise (Galluzi et al., 2018). (c)
Hypertrophy
Hypertrophy refers to the increase and growth of muscle cells through exercise. Physical exercise tones and improves muscles leading to an increase in size. People who often work out or exercise by lifting heavy weights contribute to their muscle increment.
Hyperplasia
Hyperplasia is the enlargement of body tissues or organs due to an increased amount of organic tissue. This increment in the amount of organic tissue is a result of cell proliferation.
Pathologic hyperplasia
Pathologic hyperplasia is the increment in cell production in a normal organ or tissue due to precancerous or abnormal changes such as an abnormal stressor. This condition can lead to several disorders due to high or abnormal levels of cell production.
Dysplasia
Dysplasia is a term that describes the presence of abnormal cells in a body organ or tissue. Although dysplasia is not a type of cancer it can become cancer if it is severe.
Metaplasia
Metaplasia is the process of replacing one type of mature tissue with another tissue that is not indigenous to the part of the tissue. Metaplasia is caused by environmental factors such as inflammation and microorganisms.
Mechanisms of cell injury
There are four main mechanisms of cell injury. These mechanisms are acute-phase responses, ischemic (anoxic), heat shock, and oxidative responses.
Reversible Vs irreversible
Reversible cell injury is a type of cell injury caused by a short period of hypoxia or ischemia. Cells subjected to this kind of injury can revert to normal activities and conditions (Bielaszewska et at., 2017). On the other hand, irreversible cell injury is a type of cell injury that leads to the death of a cell or causes tissue damage. This type of cell injury includes hydrolysis of phospholipids and interruption of membrane integrity among others.
Necrosis Vs apoptosis
Necrosis is a kind of cell death that is caused by uncontrolled external factors. This kind of cell death is passive, untimely, and accidental as a result of external perturbations. It is characterized by the uncontrolled release of inflammatory cellular contents (Alisha et al., 2019). Meanwhile, apoptosis is described as a kind of cell death by predefined cell suicide by destroys itself by actively dismantling, therefore, leaving the body functioning smoothly by avoiding inflammation.
Nucleus
The nucleus is a crucial part of a cell that controls and regulates all the activities of the cell. It also carries genes and other hereditary information.
Nucleolus
The nucleolus is a part of a cell that facilitates the biogenesis of ribosomes. It achieves this function by processing, synthesizing, and arranging ribosomal RNA into preribosomal particles.
Mitochondrion
Mitochondrion generates energy to power the cell by breaking down sugar and fat through cellular respiration.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are cell organelles that synthesize proteins.
Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is a fluid in a cell that provides a medium for chemical reactions such as cell growth and cell organelle replication.
Cell membrane
The cell membrane protects the organelles inside of a cell from the outside environment. It also regulates materials being transported inside and outside of the cell.
Hyperkalemia and Hypocalemia
Hyperkalemia is a high level of potassium in the blood. There are various causes of hyperkalemia in the body. Two of these causes are kidney disease, which occurs if the kidney is not functioning properly, and a diet that has high potassium, especially in patients with advanced kidney disease. Hyperkalemia is characterized by shortness of breath, muscle weakness, heart palpations, chest pains, and nausea among other symptoms such as tingling and unusual feeling.
On the other hand, hypokalemia is an extremely low level of potassium in the body. There are several symptoms of hypokalemia such as muscle cramps, abnormal heart rhythms, fatigue, weakness, and constipation (Barrera et al., 2018). Hypokalemia is caused by kidney failure, folic acid deficiency, and some asthma medications.
Hypercalcemia and Hypocalcemia
Hypercalcemia is a condition where there are high levels of calcium in the body. Hypercalcemia is caused by cancer and overactivity in parathyroid glands. Hypercalcemia symptoms include bone pain, stomach pain, and increased urination and thirst.
Meanwhile, hypocalcemia is a condition where there is an extremely low level of calcium in the blood (Banerjee et al., 2020). It is caused by inadequate vitamin D, renal disease, and hypoparathyroidism. Symptoms of hypocalcemia include muscle spasms, depression, memory loss, confusion, hallucinations, and weak nails.
Hypercalcemia and Hyponatremia
Hypercalcemia is a high concentration of sodium in the blood, especially in individuals who do not drink sufficient water. Symptoms of hypernatremia include fatigue, thirst, and restlessness. Hypernatremia is caused by impaired thirst mechanisms and insufficient water in the body. Hyponatremia is a low concentration of sodium in the blood. It is caused by excess water in the body heart failure and inappropriate antidiuretic hormone production in the body.
Acidosis and Acidosis
Acidosis is a build-up of acid in the blood caused by the overproduction of acids in the body. In its severe form acidosis leads to labored breathing and poor lung function. Alkalosis is excess base in body fluids such as blood. Alkalosis can be due to decreased carbon dioxide levels in the blood.
(a) Mr. Epperson’s myocytes were initially injured by ischemia.
(b) Ischemia injures cells faster than hypoxia alone.
(c) Reversible myocyte swelling was caused by a lack of ATP to fuel ion pumps.
(d) Irreversible myocyte injury occurred when mitochondrial and plasma membranes were disrupted.
(e) Dissolving the blood clot rescued some myocytes by providing oxygen for generating ATP.
(f) Dissolving the blood clot damaged some myocytes by reperfusion injury.
References
Alishahi, M., Ghaedrahmati, F., Kolagar, T. A., Winlow, W., Nikkar, N., Farzaneh, M., & Khoshnam, S. E. (2019). Long non-coding RNAs and cell death following ischemic stroke. Metabolic Brain Disease, 34(5), 1243-1251.
Banerjee, R., Joshi, N., & Nagotu, S. (2020). Cell organelles and yeast longevity: an intertwined regulation. Current Genetics, 66(1), 15-41.
Barrera, K., Stanek, A., Okochi, K., Niewiadomska, Z., Mueller, C., Ou, P., … & Huan, C. (2018). Acinar cell injury induced by inadequate unfolded protein response in acute pancreatitis. World Journal of Gastrointestinal Pathophysiology, 9(2), 37.
Bielaszewska, M., Rüter, C., Bauwens, A., Greune, L., Jarosch, K. A., Steil, D., … & Karch, H. (2017). Host cell interactions of outer membrane vesicle-associated virulence factors of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli O157: Intracellular delivery, trafficking, and mechanisms of cell injury. PLoS Pathogens, 13(2), e1006159.
Galluzzi, L., Vitale, I., Aaronson, S. A., Abrams, J. M., Adam, D., Agostinis, P., … & Turk, B. (2018). Molecular mechanisms of cell death: recommendations of the nomenclature committee on cell death 2018. Cell Death & Differentiation, 25(3), 486-541.
Clara Pena Espinosa
5 hours ago, at 2:59 PM
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1- Which are the concepts of?
Atrophy: the partial or full wasting away of a part of the body.
Physiologic atrophy: Physiological atrophy is a function of the growth modifications of an organism (atrophy of the thymus throughout puberty, atrophy of the sex glands, skin, and also bones in old people, and so forth). General pathological atrophy (emaciation, cachexia) shows up in cases of insufficient nourishment, persistent infection or intoxication, or problems of the endocrine glands or of the main nerves.
Hypertrophy: the augmentation of a body organ or cells from the increase in size of its cells
Hyperplasia: abnormal increase in quantity of a tissue or body organ triggered by the development and also growth of brand-new regular cells.
Pathologic hyperplasia: indication of unusual or precancerous adjustments. A typical reason for pathological hyperplasia is the unwanted of hormones. Estrogen stimulation in the endometrium can cause abnormal spreading, and androgens can provide a prostatic hyperplasia. This hyperplasia is thankfully in control as well as there is no anomaly in the cell division law genes. Also, if the hormone is eliminated, the hyperplasia will regress.
Dysplasia: is any of various sorts of irregular growth or advancement of cells (tiny scale) or organs (macroscopic scale), and also the irregular histology or physiological framework resulting from such development. Dysplasias on a mostly tiny scale include epithelial dysplasia and also coarse dysplasia of bone.
Metaplasia: is the conversion from one kind of regular adult cell to another kind of normal adult cell.
2- What are the main four mechanism of Cell Injury?
– deficiency of ATP.
– lowered degrees of oxygen as well as boosted degrees of oxygen-derived complimentary radicals.
– increased concentration of intracellular calcium and also loss of calcium steady-state.
– problems in membrane layer leaks in the structure.
3- Cell injury: reversible vs irreversible, differences between each…
The primary difference in between relatively easy to fix and permanent cell injury is that the relatively easy to fix cell injury can go back to the normal problems by modifying the homeostasis of the cell whereas the irreparable cell injury can not go back to the sensible problems as the cell has actually passed the climax. Relatively easy to fix and also permanent cell injury are 2 sorts of cell injury that can lead to cell death. Moreover, relatively easy to fix cell injury results in mobile swelling as well as fat build-up while irreversible cell injury causes death or apoptosis.
4- Cell Death: concepts of necrosis and apoptosis.
In apoptosis, the afflicted cell proactively joins the cell death process, whereas in death the cell death takes place in action to unfavorable problems in the cell’s environment.
5- Function of this cell organelles:
Nucleus: DNA Storage Space
Nucleolus: helps in healthy protein synthesis and also manufacturing of the ribosome in the cells.
Mitochondria: Power production
Ribosomes: Protein synthesis
Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm holds all the essential parts of a cell including cytosol, cell organelles, inclusions, etc. Cytoplasm is straight pertaining to cell expanding and also development. The cytoplasm is the centre of several metabolic activities in the cell. From glycolysis to cellular division processes all take place in cytoplasm (McCance, & Huethe, 2014). The cytoplasm secrets enzymes, responsible for various biochemical reactions. The cytoplasm relocates all the metabolic waste materials of the cell in the direction of their location and eliminates them from the cell. It likewise removes foreign particles from cell.
Cell Membrane Layer: Define the within and outside of a cell.
6- Hyperkalemia and Hypokalemia, causes and symptoms.
Hypokalemia as well as hyperkalemia are common electrolyte problems brought on by changes in potassium intake, transformed excretion, or transcellular shifts. Diuretic usage and also intestinal losses prevail root causes of hypokalemia, whereas kidney illness, hyperglycemia, and medicine use prevail causes of hyperkalemia. Digestion conditions like Crohn’s illness or colitis can enhance your risk of hypokalemia due to the fact that they can create chronic looseness of the bowels (McCance, & Huethe, 2014). You may likewise be at threat if you have a bad stomach bug that causes severe throwing up or looseness of the bowels. As well as you can lose potassium if you’re peing frequently or sweating greatly. Common neurologic symptoms of hyperkalemia can consist of: Reduced reflexes, Prickling, Numbness (unusual).
7- Hypercalcemia and Hypocalcemia, causes and symptoms.
Hypercalcemia, or greater than typical degree of calcium in your blood, is a fairly usual searching for. Hypercalcemia can be caused by more than 25 separate diseases, numerous medicines and also dehydration. Primary hyperparathyroidism and numerous sort of cancers cells make up the greatest percentage of all individuals with hypercalcemia. In key hyperparathyroidism, one or more of the four parathyroid glands, situated behind the thyroid gland in your neck, generate too much parathyroid hormonal agent. Usually, the parathyroid glands deal with the kidneys, skeletal system and intestines to thoroughly manage the degree of blood calcium. However occasionally a parathyroid gland ends up being overactive, causing excess parathyroid hormone being released and an elevated blood calcium degree (McCance, & Huethe, 2014). Although having signs and symptoms of hypercalcemia is unusual, signs and symptoms can consist of: Even more regular urination and thirst, Tiredness, bone discomfort, headaches, Queasiness, vomiting, constipation, decline in cravings, Forgetfulness, Lethargy, depression, amnesia or irritation, Muscle pains, weak point, cramping and/or twitches.
Hypocalcemia describes reduced levels of calcium located on a blood test. It can trigger symptoms like tingling, muscle aches, and also heart rhythm issues that can vary from moderate to serious. Hypocalcemia may create symptoms such as the following: Sensations of pins and needles or prickling, Muscle mass aches, spasms, or weakness, Dry skin or other skin issues, Breakable nails, Difficulty swallowing, Lack of breath and also wheezing, Seizures, Heart rhythm troubles, Cardiomyopathy, Exhaustion, and Psychological disturbances such as anxiety and also complication. Many people recognize that calcium belongs of your bones (McCance, & Huethe, 2014). But calcium is likewise found in your blood as well as inside your body’s cells. Actually, calcium is associated with numerous vital organic processes. As an example, it plays roles in blood clotting and in assisting particular enzymes to function. It is likewise essential for appropriate signaling in your nerves as well as muscle mass, including your heart muscle. As a result of this, your body works to firmly control the amount of calcium existing in your blood. If it’s expensive, it tries to bring it down; if it’s as well reduced, it attempts to bring it up.
8- Hypernatremia and Hyponatremia. causes and symptoms.
Hypernatremia refers to sodium degrees in the blood being too high. Sodium plays a crucial duty in features such as contraction, nerve impulse generation, and liquid balance. The main causes Resource of hypernatremia are inadequate liquid consumption or too much loss of fluids, causing not enough liquid in the blood. Several wellness factors can cause hypernatremia or enhance its possibility. These consist of: dehydration, Vomiting, kidney disease, unchecked diabetic issues, diabetes insipidus, severe looseness of the bowels, mental deterioration, high temperature, ecstasy (McCance, & Huethe, 2014). Having too much sodium in the blood may cause no signs and symptoms, as well as a person may be not aware of it. Nonetheless, it can cause symptoms and problems such as: extreme thirst, tiredness, confusion, adjustments in mood, muscle twitching, convulsions, seizures, coma.
Hyponatremia is a problem where sodium degrees in the blood are less than normal. Oftentimes, excessive water in the body weakens the salt, creating the condition. Chronic, extreme vomiting or diarrhea and other reasons for dehydration. This triggers your body to lose electrolytes, such as salt, as well as additionally enhances ADH degrees. Drinking excessive water. Consuming alcohol too much amounts of water can create low salt by overwhelming the kidneys’ capability to eliminate water (McCance, & Huethe, 2014). Since you lose sodium through sweat, alcohol consumption excessive water during endurance activities, such as marathons and also triathlons, can additionally weaken the salt web content of your blood. Hormonal changes. Adrenal gland insufficiency (Addison’s condition) affects your adrenal glands’ ability to produce hormones that aid maintain your body’s equilibrium of salt, potassium and water. Reduced levels of thyroid hormonal agent additionally can cause a reduced blood-sodium degree. The leisure drug Ecstasy. This amphetamine enhances the threat of serious as well as also deadly instances of hyponatremia. Hyponatremia creates neurologic signs varying from complication to seizures to coma. The extent of the symptoms depends on just how reduced the salt degrees remain in the blood stream and how swiftly they drop (McCance, & Huethe, 2014). In a lot of cases, blood sodium levels drop gradually, generating only moderate signs as the body has time to make changes. Symptoms are extra severe when blood salt levels fall promptly.
9- What is acidosis and what is alkalosis?
Acidosis vs alkalosis might occur as a result of different underlying troubles, yet they have numerous similarities and can often be detected as well as treated similarly. Acidosis describes the problem of having an unwanted of acid in the blood. There are two sorts of acidosis: metabolic and breathing. Alkalosis is an excess in the concentration of alkaline materials or alkali in the blood and body fluids. A pH of 7 is a neutral focus of antacids. This problem is characterized by a high plasma pH (above 7.45), high bicarbonate focus, as well as low PCO2. The symptoms of acidosis are the following: feeling weary, having sore muscular tissues, troubles with breathing, as well as sensation woozy, confusion, modifications in heart rate or high blood pressure, lack of ability to urinate or sweat, as well as discomfort in the chest area (McCance, & Huethe, 2014). If you experience these signs and symptoms while additionally really feeling sick with a high temperature it is necessary to look for healthcare quickly. Symptoms of acidosis might consist of Confusion (can proceed to stupor or coma), Hand shake. Impaired thinking. Muscle twitching. Queasiness, vomiting. Tingling or tingling in the face, hands, or feet.
Altered Cellular and Tissue Biology: Environmental Agents
10- Mr. Epperson was lifting a heavy piece of furniture when he experienced crushing pain in his chest, began sweating heavily, and was nauseated. His wife drove him to the hospital, where he was diagnosed with a myocardial infarction (heart attack) and given intravenous drugs to dissolve a clot that was obstructing a major coronary artery. After his hospitalization, Mr. Epperson’s doctor told him that some of his heart muscle had died. Match the questions with the correct answers regarding the cell injury in Mr. Epperson’s heart.
- Mr. Epperson’s myocytes were initially injured by ___ ischemia ____.
- Ischemia injures cells faster than ___ hypoxia ____ alone.
- Reversible myocyte swelling was caused by lack of ____ ATP ___ to fuel ion pumps.
- Irreversible myocyte injury occurred when mitochondrial and plasma ___ membranes ____ were disrupted.
- Dissolving the blood clot rescued some myocytes by providing ___ oxygen ____ for generating ATP.
- Dissolving the blood clot damaged some myocytes by ___ reperfusion ____ injury.
- hypoxia
- sodium
- oxygen
- ATP
- ischemia
- necrosis
- reperfusion
- membranes
- apoptosis
Reference
McCance, Kathryn L. & Huethe, Sue E. (2014). Pathophysiology: The Biology Basis for Disease in Adults and Children. 7th Edition. Evolve Elsevier. ISBN-13: 978-0323088541
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