The questions based on the Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes

Please answer all of them.

(You may wish to print out these questions for quick reference for when you go to write your paper)

Students: please read all of the following questions. Think about what is being asked in each question. Then formulate in your mind what your answers to those questions would be.

ER/SR Evaluate the significance of how Elliott used this exercise to teach the meaning of brotherhood and moral/ethical reasoning for overcoming stereotypes and relating to people who are different. The questions based on the Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes

CT/TR Discuss your overall reaction to “A Class Divided.” Respond to this thinking routine:

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Before viewing “A Class Divided” I Used to Think . . .

After viewing “But Now I think . . . “

This change of mind is because? . . .

SD Have you ever personally experienced discrimination? If so, what were the circumstances? How did you cope with stress?

SR If not, what will you do in the future when you see or experience discrimination in action?

ER/SR Notice about how quickly the children fell into their assigned roles. What does this say about the ease of learning to become prejudice?

CT/ER Participants in this exercise are only exposed to discrimination for a relatively short amount of time. Relate their attitudes and behavior after just a short amount of time to that of minority group members in our society who are exposed to a lifetime of discrimination.

CT/ER Select a marginalized, disenfranchised or minority group of people and identify the parallels between the comments and actions made by the brown eyed children on the first day and the comments and actions of the marginalized, disenfranchised or minority group you selected The questions based on the Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes.

Analysis of Maggie Downs’s

For this assignment, you will be writing a response to the essay you selected for your Week 2 Outline. The purpose of a draft is to give your instructor a good sense of your organizational writing skills so he/she can examine your use of the strategies of basic argumentation and critical response and provide you with feedback you can incorporate in your Final Essay.

In your paper,

• Expand upon your prewriting from the discussion forums (if applicable) by providing specific details about the essay you selected and the topic that it explores.
• Show the steps of the writing process by developing the Week 2 Outline into a workable rough draft.
• Compose a clear argument in response to the selected essay. Support your response with examples and at least one quote and one paraphrase (a total of two citations) from the essay you selected.
• State specific details about the reading you selected, the topic that it explores, and your critical response to that topic.
• Utilize appropriate academic writing tone, style, and citation format as well as correct grammar, spelling, and sentence mechanics.
• Organize the essay with an introduction, a thesis, support paragraphs, and a conclusion. Analysis of Maggie Downs’s
  

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The Critical Response Essay – Rough Draft

• Must be at least 3 properly formatted pages in length or 750 words (not including title and references pages) and formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center’s APA Style (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. resource.
• Must include a separate title page with the following:
  • Title of draft
  • Student’s name
  • Course name and number
  • Instructor’s name
  • Date submitted
  • For further assistance with the formatting and the title page, refer to APA Formatting for Word 2013 (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site..
• Must utilize academic voice. See the Academic Voice (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site.resource for additional guidance.
• Must include a clear thesis statement. For more information about writing thesis statements, visit the Ashford Writing Center (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. and review Chapters 4 and 5 of Essentials of College Writing.
• Must include an introduction and conclusion paragraph. Your introduction paragraph needs to end with a clear thesis statement that indicates the purpose of your paper.
  • For assistance on writing Introductions & Conclusions (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. as well as Writing a Thesis Statement (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site., refer to the Ashford Writing Center resources.
• Must use at least 1 scholarly source in addition to the course text. Scholarly source should be found in the Ashford Library.
  • The Scholarly, Peer Reviewed, and Other Credible Sources (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. table offers additional guidance on appropriate source types. If you have questions about whether a specific source is appropriate for this assignment, please contact your instructor. Your instructor has the final say about the appropriateness of a specific source for a particular assignment.
• Must document any information used from sources in APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center’s Citing Within Your Paper (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. guide.
• Must include a separate references page that is formatted according to APA style as outlined in the Ashford Writing Center. See the Formatting Your References List (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. resource in the Ashford Writing Center for specifications.

Mothers are champions and celebrating them only once a year trivializes the extraordinary effort and sacrifice that they make every day for their children. Traditionally, nurturing was viewed as a woman’s job, and thus she was expected to figure out a way around the challenges and make it work. As such, it can be argued that the society has come a long way to recognize that motherhood is a fulfilling, but tough experience as each case presents unique challenges that the new parents had never dealt with before. However, mere recognition is not enough; instead, society should abandon the mentality that shifts all the motherhood responsibilities to the mother only to watch from a distance. At the moment, all that women can do is emulate Maggie Downs’s tactics which entail assessing the existing challenges and improvising to make things work out. In this regard, the paper argues that motherhood demonstrates a journey of courage and resilience that is rarely recognized by the community. Analysis of Maggie Downs’s

In the article, ‘Tim Gunn and a Leaky Shower: Welcome to my life little guy,’ Maggie Downs’s fantasizes about having a Tim Gunn in her life. The admirable figure will act as a source of guidance in a situation that she thought was beyond her control. According to the author, the birth of her son coincided with summer and the repair of their condo. The workers could arrive at 6.00 am and work until late into the dark (Downs, 2015). Throughout the day, Downs had to deal with noise from the continuous pounding, footsteps and, a crying baby but staying outside was not an option due to the extreme temperatures. Given the situation, it is apparent that Maggie wished that the reconstruction could be finished within the shortest time possible to restore the house in a state that could offer a bit of comfort to her and the little one.

I chose the communication/speaking out for this essay, because the mom could’ve spoken out about how the whole situation was affecting her life with the new baby in the home, while the crew was doing the fixing. The new mom could’ve gotten a little more help in regards on how the whole situation went down, the landlord could’ve at least tried to make everyone living in the condo comfortable by adding ac’s, fans, and or maybe letting them stay in an empty condo while the crew fixed the on-going restroom leaking issues. As stated in the Communication Strategies “Yet perhaps the most effective ways of improving communication are also the simplest – taking the time to really notice your colleagues, listening to how they speak as well as what they say, and remembering that what happens inside of us, in particular how we feel, will have a profound influence on what we do” by Emerald Group. Who knows the landlord probably would’ve realized that this little family just had a newborn and might’ve helped them out while the crew did their thing to fix the leakage. Analysis of Maggie Downs’s

However, Maggie does not engage with the workers as she lets them work without interruptions. Instead, she identifies ways to make life manageable. For instance, she makes the nursery room floor her temporal bed and resort to using a paper plate to avoid a pile-up of dirty dishes. Note that Maggie makes a considerable shift from a mentality of perfectionism to necessity based on three catchy words ‘Make it work’ used by her TV idol. The new mum relies on the same phrases when she gets the sad news that the new shower floor was built at a wrong angle. This mistake meant that the torment and sacrifices that Maggie had made throughout the reconstruction period were useless. Instead of getting hysterical, Maggie proposes a modification that would resolve the issue in the meantime.

Maggie Downs’s article depicts a mother’s journey towards restoring control and normalcy in her life regardless of multiple unfavorable factors within her environment. Maggie ‘grows’ from feeling helpless as evidenced by her need to get an ‘escape’ that is watching the past episodes of the runway project to figuring out a strategy to her existing situation. Like most mothers, Maggie finds the necessary balance that is often lost once a newborn joins the family leading to the conclusion that motherhood places one in a situation that brings out one’s courage and ability to adapt or perhaps speaking out with proper communication.

Reference

Downs, M. (2015, July 1). Tim Gunn and a Leaky Shower: Welcome to my Life, Little Guy . Washington Post .

Communication Strategies, edited by Group Emerald, Emerald Publishing Limited, 2004. ProQuest Ebook Central, https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.proxy-library.ashford.edu/lib/ashford-ebooks/detail.action?docID=282890. Analysis of Maggie Downs’s

Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory

• The psychoanalytic approach emphasizes the importance of early childhood development and events.  Do you find that current problems are mostly rooted in early childhood events or influences?  To what extent do you believe people can resolve their adult problems that stem from childhood without exploring past events?  When you apply this basic psychoanalytic concept specifically to yourself, what connections between your own past and present are you aware? Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory

The Place of Techniques and Evaluation in Counseling

Drawing on Techniques from Various ApproachesTechniques of Therapy

Applications of the Approaches

Contributions to Multicultural Counseling

Limitations in Multicultural Counseling

Contributions of the Approaches

Overview of Contemporary Counseling Models

Ego-Defense Mechanisms

Comparison of Freud’s Psychosexual Stages and Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

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The Basic Philosophies

Key Concepts

Goals of Therapy

The Therapeutic Relationship

Limitations of the Approaches

The Place of Techniques and Evaluation in Counseling

Drawing on Techniques from Various Approaches Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory

 

Techniques of Therapy

Psychoanalytic therapy	The key techniques are interpretation, dream analysis, free association, analysis of resistance, analysis of transference, and countertransference. Techniques are designed to help clients gain access to their unconscious conflicts, which leads to insight and eventual assimilation of new material by the ego.
Adlerian therapy	Adlerians pay more attention to the subjective experiences of clients than to using techniques. Some techniques include gathering life-history data (family constellation, early recollections, personal priorities), sharing interpretations with clients, offering encouragement, and assisting clients in searching for new possibilities.
Existential therapy	Few techniques flow from this approach because it stresses understanding first and technique second. The therapist can borrow techniques from other approaches and incorporate them in an existential framework. Diagnosis, testing, and external measurements are not deemed important. Issues addressed are freedom and responsibility, isolation and relationships, meaning and meaninglessness, living and dying.
Person-centered therapy	This approach uses few techniques but stresses the attitudes of the therapist and a “way of being.” Therapists strive for active listening, reflection of feelings, clarification, “being there” for the client, and focusing on the moment-to-moment experiencing of the client. This model does not include diagnostic testing, interpretation, taking a case history, or questioning or probing for information.
Gestalt therapy	A wide range of experiments are designed to intensify experiencing and to integrate conflicting feelings. Experiments are co-created by therapist and client through an I/Thou dialogue. Therapists have latitude to creatively invent their own experiments. Formal diagnosis and testing are not a required part of therapy.
Behavior therapy	The main techniques are reinforcement, shaping, modeling, systematic desensitization, relaxation methods, flooding, eye movement and desensitization reprocessing, cognitive restructuring, social skills training, self-management programs, mindfulness and acceptance methods, behavioral rehearsal, and coaching. Diagnosis or assessment is done at the outset to determine a treatment plan. Questions concentrate on “what,” “how,” and “when” (but not “why”). Contracts and homework assignments are also typically used. Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory
Cognitive behavior therapy	Therapists use a variety of cognitive, emotive, and behavioral techniques; diverse methods are tailored to suit individual clients. This is an active, directive, time-limited, present-centered, psychoeducational, structured therapy. Some techniques include engaging in Socratic dialogue, collaborative empiricism, debating irrational beliefs, carrying out homework assignments, gathering data on assumptions one has made, keeping a record of activities, forming alternative interpretations, learning new coping skills, changing one’s language and thinking patterns, role playing, imagery, confronting faulty beliefs, self-instructional training, and stress inoculation training.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy	This is an active, directive, and didactic therapy. Skillful questioning is a central technique used for the duration of the therapy process. Various techniques may be used to get clients to evaluate what they are presently doing to see if they are willing to change. If clients decide that their present behavior is not effective, they develop a specific plan for change and make a commitment to follow through.
Feminist therapy	Although techniques from traditional approaches are used, feminist practitioners tend to employ consciousness-raising techniques aimed at helping clients recognize the impact of gender-role socialization on their lives. Other techniques frequently used include gender-role analysis and intervention, power analysis and intervention, demystifying therapy, bibliotherapy, journal writing, therapist self-disclosure, assertiveness training, reframing and relabeling, cognitive restructuring, identifying and challenging untested beliefs, role playing, psychodramatic methods, group work, and social action. Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory
Postmodern approaches	In solution-focused therapy the main technique involves change-talk, with emphasis on times in a client’s life when the problem was not a problem. Other techniques include creative use of questioning, the miracle question, and scaling questions, which assist clients in developing alternative stories. In narrative therapy, specific techniques include listening to a client’s problem-saturated story without getting stuck, externalizing and naming the problem, externalizing conversations, and discovering clues to competence. Narrative therapists often write letters to clients and assist them in finding an audience that will support their changes and new stories.
Family systems therapy	A variety of techniques may be used, depending on the particular theoretical orientation of the therapist. Some techniques include genograms, teaching, asking questions, joining the family, tracking sequences, family mapping, reframing, restructuring, enactments, and setting boundaries. Techniques may be experiential, cognitive, or behavioral in nature. Most are designed to bring about change in a short time.

Techniques of Therapy

Applications of the Approaches

Psychoanalytic therapy	Candidates for analytic therapy include professionals who want to become therapists, people who have had intensive therapy and want to go further, and those who are in psychological pain. Analytic therapy is not recommended for self-centered and impulsive individuals or for people with psychotic disorders. Techniques can be applied to individual and group therapy.
Adlerian therapy	Because the approach is based on a growth model, it is applicable to such varied spheres of life as child guidance, parent–child counseling, marital and family therapy, individual counseling with all age groups, correctional and rehabilitation counseling, group counseling, substance abuse programs, and brief counseling. It is ideally suited to preventive care and alleviating a broad range of conditions that interfere with growth.
Existential therapy	This approach is especially suited to people facing a developmental crisis or a transition in life and for those with existential concerns (making choices, dealing with freedom and responsibility, coping with guilt and anxiety, making sense of life, and finding values) or those seeking personal enhancement. The approach can be applied to both individual and group counseling, and to couples and family therapy, crisis intervention, and community mental health work.
Person-centered therapy	Has wide applicability to individual and group counseling. It is especially well suited for the initial phases of crisis intervention work. Its principles have been applied to couples and family therapy, community programs, administration and management, and human relations training. It is a useful approach for teaching, parent–child relations, and for working with groups of people from diverse cultural backgrounds. Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory
Gestalt therapy	Addresses a wide range of problems and populations: crisis intervention, treatment of a range of psychosomatic disorders, couples and family therapy, awareness training of mental health professionals, behavior problems in children, and teaching and learning. It is well suited to both individual and group counseling. The methods are powerful catalysts for opening up feelings and getting clients into contact with their present-centered experience.
Behavior therapy	A pragmatic approach based on empirical validation of results. Enjoys wide applicability to individual, group, couples, and family counseling. Some problems to which the approach is well suited are phobic disorders, depression, trauma, sexual disorders, children’s behavioral disorders, stuttering, and prevention of cardiovascular disease. Beyond clinical practice, its principles are applied in fields such as pediatrics, stress management, behavioral medicine, education, and geriatrics.
Cognitive behavior therapy	Has been widely applied to treatment of depression, anxiety, relationship problems, stress management, skill training, substance abuse, assertion training, eating disorders, panic attacks, performance anxiety, and social phobias. CBT is especially useful for assisting people in modifying their cognitions. Many self-help approaches utilize its principles. CBT can be applied to a wide range of client populations with a variety of specific problems.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy	Geared to teaching people ways of using choice theory in everyday living to increase effective behaviors. It has been applied to individual counseling with a wide range of clients, group counseling, working with youthful law offenders, and couples and family therapy. In some instances it is well suited to brief therapy and crisis intervention.
Feminist therapy	Principles and techniques can be applied to a range of therapeutic modalities such as individual therapy, relationship counseling, family therapy, group counseling, and community intervention. The approach can be applied to both women and men with the goal of bringing about empowerment.
Postmodern approaches	Solution-focused therapy is well suited for people with adjustment disorders and for problems of anxiety and depression. Narrative therapy is now being used for a broad range of human difficulties including eating disorders, family distress, depression, and relationship concerns. These approaches can be applied to working with children, adolescents, adults, couples, families, and the community in a wide variety of settings. Both solution-focused and narrative approaches lend themselves to group counseling and to school counseling. Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory
Family systems therapy	Useful for dealing with marital distress, problems of communicating among family members, power struggles, crisis situations in the family, helping individuals attain their potential, and enhancing the overall functioning of the family.

Applications of the Approaches

Contributions to Multicultural Counseling

Psychoanalytic therapy	Its focus on family dynamics is appropriate for working with many cultural groups. The therapist’s formality appeals to clients who expect professional distance. Notion of ego defense is helpful in understanding inner dynamics and dealing with environmental stresses.
Adlerian therapy	Its focus on social interest, helping others, collectivism, pursuing meaning in life, importance of family, goal orientation, and belonging is congruent with the values of many cultures. Focus on person-in-the-environment allows for cultural factors to be explored.
Existential therapy	Focus is on understanding client’s phenomenological world, including cultural background. This approach leads to empowerment in an oppressive society. Existential therapy can help clients examine their options for change within the context of their cultural realities. The existential approach is particularly suited to counseling diverse clients because of the philosophical foundation that emphasizes the human condition.
Person-centered therapy	Focus is on breaking cultural barriers and facilitating open dialogue among diverse cultural populations. Main strengths are respect for clients’ values, active listening, welcoming of differences, nonjudgmental attitude, understanding, willingness to allow clients to determine what will be explored in sessions, and prizing cultural pluralism.
Gestalt therapy	Its focus on expressing oneself nonverbally is congruent with those cultures that look beyond words for messages. Provides many experiments in working with clients who have cultural injunctions against freely expressing feelings. Can help to overcome language barrier with bilingual clients. Focus on bodily expressions is a subtle way to help clients recognize their conflicts.
Behavior therapy	Focus on behavior, rather than on feelings, is compatible with many cultures. Strengths include a collaborative relationship between counselor and client in working toward mutually agreed-upon goals, continual assessment to determine if the techniques are suited to clients’ unique situations, assisting clients in learning practical skills, an educational focus, and stress on self-management strategies.
Cognitive behavior therapy	Focus is on a collaborative approach that offers clients opportunities to express their areas of concern. The psychoeducational dimensions are often useful in exploring cultural conflicts and teaching new behavior. The emphasis on thinking (as opposed to identifying and expressing feelings) is likely to be acceptable to many clients. The focus on teaching and learning tends to avoid the stigma of mental illness. Clients are likely to value the active and directive stance of the therapist. Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory
Choice theory/ Reality therapy	Focus is on clients making their own evaluation of behavior (including how they respond to their culture). Through personal assessment clients can determine the degree to which their needs and wants are being satisfied. They can find a balance between retaining their own ethnic identity and integrating some of the values and practices of the dominant society.
Feminist therapy	Focus is on both individual change and social transformation. A key contribution is that both the women’s movement and the multicultural movement have called attention to the negative impact of discrimination and oppression for both women and men. Emphasizes the influence of expected cultural roles and explores client’s satisfaction with and knowledge of these roles.
Postmodern approaches	Focus is on the social and cultural context of behavior. Stories that are being authored in the therapy office need to be anchored in the social world in which the client lives. Therapists do not make assumptions about people and honor each client’s unique story and cultural background. Therapists take an active role in challenging social and cultural injustices that lead to oppression of certain groups. Therapy becomes a process of liberation from oppressive cultural values and enables clients to become active agents of their destinies.
Family systems therapy	Focus is on the family or community system. Many ethnic and cultural groups place value on the role of the extended family. Many family therapies deal with extended family members and with support systems. Networking is a part of the process, which is congruent with the values of many clients. There is a greater chance for individual change if other family members are supportive. This approach offers ways of working toward the health of the family unit and the welfare of each member. Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory

Contributions to Multicultural Counseling

Limitations in Multicultural Counseling

Psychoanalytic therapy	Its focus on insight, intrapsychic dynamics, and long-term treatment is often not valued by clients who prefer to learn coping skills for dealing with pressing daily concerns. Internal focus is often in conflict with cultural values that stress an interpersonal and environmental focus.
Adlerian therapy	This approach’s detailed interview about one’s family background can conflict with cultures that have injunctions against disclosing family matters. Some clients may view the counselor as an authority who will provide answers to problems, which conflicts with the egalitarian, person-to person spirit as a way to reduce social distance.
Existential therapy	Values of individuality, freedom, autonomy, and self-realization often conflict with cultural values of collectivism, respect for tradition, deference to authority, and interdependence. Some may be deterred by the absence of specific techniques. Others will expect more focus on surviving in their world.
Person-centered therapy	Some of the core values of this approach may not be congruent with the client’s culture. Lack of counselor direction and structure are unacceptable for clients who are seeking help and immediate answers from a knowledgeable professional.
Gestalt therapy	Clients who have been culturally conditioned to be emotionally reserved may not embrace Gestalt experiments. Some may not see how “being aware of present experiencing” will lead to solving their problems.
Behavior therapy	Family members may not value clients’ newly acquired assertive style, so clients must be taught how to cope with resistance by others. Counselors need to help clients assess the possible consequences of making behavioral changes.
Cognitive behavior therapy	Before too quickly attempting to change the beliefs and actions of clients, it is essential for the therapist to understand and respect their world. Some clients may have serious reservations about questioning their basic cultural values and beliefs. Clients could become dependent on the therapist choosing appropriate ways to solve problems.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy	This approach stresses taking charge of one’s own life, yet some clients are more interested in changing their external environment. Counselors need to appreciate the role of discrimination and racism and help clients deal with social and political realities.
Feminist therapy	This model has been criticized for its bias toward the values of White, middle-class, heterosexual women, which are not applicable to many other groups of women nor to men. Therapists need to assess with their clients the price of making significant personal change, which may result in isolation from extended family as clients assume new roles and make life changes.
Postmodern approaches	Some clients come to therapy wanting to talk about their problems and may be put off by the insistence on talking about exceptions to their problems. Clients may view the therapist as an expert and be reluctant to view themselves as experts. Certain clients may doubt the helpfulness of a therapist who assumes a “not-knowing” position.
Family systems therapy	Family therapy rests on value assumptions that are not congruent with the values of clients from some cultures. Western concepts such as individuation, self-actualization, self-determination, independence, and self-expression may be foreign to some clients. In some cultures, admitting problems within the family is shameful. The value of “keeping problems within the family” may make it difficult to explore conflicts openly. Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory

General Problem-Solving Methods

People solve problems all the time. Some problems are pragmatic (“I want to Tom borrowed my car. How can I get there?”). Others are social (“I really want Amy to notice me; how should I arrange it?”). Others are academic (“Im trying to prove this theorem. How can I do it, starting from these axioms?”). What these situations share, though, is the desire to figure out how to reach some goal-a configuration that defines what we call problem solving. How do people solve go to the store, but problems?  Problem Solving as Search  Researchers compare problem solving to a process of search, as though you were navigating through a maze, seeking a path toward your goal (see Newe & Simon, 1972; also Bassok & Novick, 2012 Mayer, 2012). To make this point concrete, consider the Hobbits and Orcs problem in Figure 13.1. For this problem, you have choices for the various moves you can make (transporting creatures back and forth), but you’re limited by the size of the boat and the requirement that Hobbits can never be outnumbered (lest they be eaten). This situation leaves you with a set of options shown graphically in Figure 13.2. The figure shows the moves available early in the solution and depicts the options as a tree. with each step leading to more branches. All the branches together form the problem space- that is, the set of all states that can be reached in solving the problem.

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 To solve this problem, one strategy would be to trace through the entire problem space, exploring each branch in turn. This would be like exploring every possible corridor in a maze, an approach that would guarantee that you’d eventually find the solution. For most problems, however, this approach would be hopeless. Consider the game of chess. In chess, which move is best at any point in the game depends on what your opponent will be able to do in response to your move, and then what you’ll do next. To make sure you’re choosing the best move, therefore, you need to think ahead through a few cycles of play, so that you can select as your current move the one that will lead to the best sequence. Let’s imagine, therefore, that you decide to look ahead just three cycles of play-three of your moves and three of your opponent’s. Some calculation, however, tells us that for three cycles of chess play there are roughly 700 million possibilities for how the game could go; this number immediately rules out the option of considering every possibility. If you could evaluate 10 sequences per second, you’d still need more than 2 years, on a 24/7 schedule, to evaluate the full set of options for each move. And, of course, there’s nothing special here about chess, because most real-life problems offer so many options that you couldn’t possibly explore every one. Plainly, then, you somehow need to narrow your search through a problem space, and specifically, what you need is a problem-solving heuristic. As we’ve discussed in other chapters. heuristics are strategies that are efficient but at the cost of occasional errors. In the domain of problem solving, a heuristic is a strategy that narrows your search through the problem space-but (you hope) in a way that still leads to the problem’s solution. General Problem-Solving Heuristics One commonly used heuristic is called the hill-climbing strategy. To understand this term, imagine that you’re hiking through the woods and trying to figure out which trail leads to the mountaintop. You obviously need to climb uphill to reach the top, so whenever you come to a fork in the trail, you select the path that’s going uphill. The problem-solving strategy works the same way: At each point you choose the option that moves you in the direction of your goal. This strategy is of limited use, however, because many problems require that you briefly move away from your goal; only then, from this new position, can the problem be solved. For instance, if you want Mingus to notice you more, it might help if you go away for a while; that way, he’ll be more likely to notice you when you come back. You would never discover this ploy, though, if you relied on the hill-climbing strategy. Even so, people often rely on this heuristic. As a result, they have difficulties whenever a problem requires them to “move backward in order to go forward.” Often, at these points, people drop their current plan and seek some other solution to the problem: “This must be the wrong strategy; I’m going the wrong way” (See, e.g., Jeffries, Polson, Razran, & Atwood, 1977; Thomas, 1974.) General Problem-Solving Methods Fortunately, people have other heuristics available to them. For example, people often rely on means-end analysis. In this strategy, you compare your current state to the goal state and you ask “What means do I have to make these more alike?” Figure 13.3 offers a commonsense example. Pictures and Diagrams  People have other options in their mental toolkit. For example, it’s often helpful to translate a problem into concrete terms, relying on a mental image or a picture. As an illustration, consider the problem in Figure 13.4. Most people try an algebraic solution to this problem (width of each volume multiplied by the number of volumes, divided by the worm’s eating rate) and end up with the wrong People generally get this problem right, though, if they start by visualizing the arrangement. Now, they can see the actual positions of the worm’s starting point and end point, and this usually answer. takes them to the correct answer. (See Figure 13.5; also see Anderson, 1993; Anderson & Helstrup, 1993; Reed, 1993; Verstijnen, Hennessey, van Leeuwen, Hamel, & Goldschmidt, 1998.) General Problem-Solving Methods

 Drawing on Experience Where do these points leave us with regard to the questions with which we began-and, in particular, the ways in which people differ from one another in their mental abilities? There’s actually little difference from one person to the next in the use of strategies like hill climbing or means-end analysis-most people can and do use these strategies. People do differ, of course, in their drawing ability and in their imagery prowess (see Chapter 11), but these points are relevant only for some problems. Where, then, do the broader differences in problem-solving skill arise?  Problem Solving via Analogy  Often, a problem reminds you of other problems you’ve solved in the past, and so you can rely on your past experience in tackling the current challenge. In other words, you solve the current problem by means of an analogy with other, already solved, problems. It’s easy to show that analogies are helpful (Chan, Paletz, & Schunn, 2012; Donnelly & McDaniel, 1993; Gentner & Smith, 2012; Holyoak, 2012), but it’s also plain that people under-use analogies. Consider the tumor problem (see Figure 13.6A). This problem is difficult, but people generally solve it if they use an analogy. Gick and Holyoak (1980) first had their participants read about a related situation (see Figure 13.6B) and then presented them with the tumor problem. When participants were encouraged to use this hint, 75% were able to solve the tumor problem. Without the hint, only 10% solved the problem. Note, though, that Gick and Holyoak had another group of participants read the “general and fortress” story, but these participants weren’t told that this story was relevant to the tumor problem. problem (see Figure 13.7). (Also see Kubricht, Lu, & Holyoak, Only 30% of this group solved the tumor 2017.) Apparently, then, uninstructed use of analogies is rare, and one reason lies in how people search through memory when seeking an analogy. In solving the tumor problem, people seem to ask themselves: “What else do I know about tumors?” This search will help them remember other situations in which they thought about tumors, but it won’t lead them to the “general and fortress” problem. This (potential) analogue will therefore lie dormant in memory and provide no help. (See e.g., Bassok, 1996; Cummins, 1992; Hahn, Prat-Sala, Pothos, & Brumby, 2010; Wharton, Holyoak, Downing, & Lange, 1994.) To locate helpful analogies in memory, you generally need to look beyond the superficial features of the problem and think instead about the principles governing the problem-focusing on what’s sometimes called the problem’s “deep structure.” As a related point, you’ll be able to use an analogy only if you figure out how to map the prior case onto the problem now being solved-only if you realize, for example, that converging groups of soldiers correspond to converging rays and that a fortress-to-be-captured corresponds to a tumor-to-be-destroyed. This mapping process can be difficult (Holyoak, 2012; Reed, 2017), and failures to figure out the mapping are another reason people regularly fail to find and use analogies. Strategies to Make Analogy Use More Likely  Perhaps, then, we have our first suggestion about why people differ in their problem-solving ability Perhaps the people who are better problem solvers are those who make better use of analogies- plausibly, because they pay attention to a problem’s deep structure rather than its superficial traits. Consistent with these claims, it turns out that we can improve problem solving by encouraging people to pay attention to the problems’ underlying dynamic. For example, Cummins (1992) instructed participants in one group to analyze a series of algebra problems one by one. Participants in a second group were asked to compare the problems to one another, describing what the problems had in common. The latter instruction forced participants to think about the problems underlying structure; guided by this perspective, the participants were more likely, later on, to use the training problems as a basis for forming and using analogies. (Also see Catrambone, Craig, & Nersessian, 2006; Kurtz & Loewenstein, 2007; Lane & Schooler, 2004; Pedrone, Hummel, & Holyoak 2001.) Expert Problem Solvers  How far can we go with these points? Can we use these simple ideas to explain the difference between ordinary problem solvers and genuine experts? To some extent, we can. We just suggested, for example, that it’s helpful to think about problems in terms of their deep structure, and this is, it seems, the way experts think about problems. In one study, participants were asked to categorize simple physics problems (Chi, Feltovich, & Glaser, 1981). Novices tended to place together all the problems involving river currents., all the problems involving springs, and so on, in each case focusing on the surface form of the problem. In contrast, experts (Ph.D. students in physics) ignored these details of the problems and, instead, sorted according to the physical principles relevant to the problems’ solution. (For more on expertise, see Ericsson & Towne, 2012.) We’ve also claimed that attention to a problem’s deep structure promotes analogy use, so if experts are more attentive to this structure, they should be more likely to use analogies-and they are (e.g., Bassok & Novick, 2012). Experts’ reliance on analogies is evident both in the laboratory (e.g., Novick and Holyoak, 1991) and in real-world settings. Christensen and Schunn (2005) recorded work meetings of a group of engineers trying to create new products for the medical world. As the engineers discussed their options, analogy use was frequent-with an analogy being offered in the discussion every 5 minutes! Setting Subgoals  Experts also have other advantages. For example, for many problems, it’s helpful to break a problem into subproblems so that the overall problem can be solved part by part rather than all at once. This, too, is a technique that experts often use. Classic evidence on this point comes from studies of chess experts (de Groot, 1965, 1966; also see Chase & Simon, 1973). The data show that these experts are particularly skilled in organizing a chess game-in seeing the structure of the game, understanding its parts, and perceiving how the parts are related to one another. This skill can be revealed in many ways, including how chess masters remember board positions. In one procedure, chess masters were able to remember the positions of 20 pieces after viewing the board for just 5 seconds; novices remembered many fewer (see Figure 13.8). In addition, there was a clear pattern to the experts’ recollection: In recalling the layout of the board, the experts would place four or five pieces in their proper positions, then pause, then recall another group, then pause, and so on. In each case, the group of pieces was one that made “tactical sense”-for example, the pieces involved in a “forked” attack, a chain of mutually defending pieces, and the like. (For similar data with other forms of expertise, see Tuffiash, Roring, & Ericsson, 2007 also see Sala & Gobet, 2017.) General Problem-Solving Methods

 It seems, then, that the masters-experts in chess-memorize the board in terms of higher-order units, defined by their strategic function within the game. This perception of higher-order units helps to organize the experts’ thinking. By focusing on the units and how they’re related to one another, the experts keep track of broad strategies without getting bogged down in the details. Likewise, these units set subgoals for the experts. Having perceived a group of pieces as a coordinated attack, an expert sets the subgoal of preparing for the attack. Having perceived another group of pieces as the early deevelopment of a pin (a situation in which a player cannot move without exposing a more valuable piece to an attack), the expert creates the subgoal of avoiding the pin. It turns out, though, that experts also have other advantages, including the simple fact that they know much more about their domains of expertise than novices do. Experts also organize their knowledge more effectively than novices. In particular, studies indicate that experts’ knowledge is heavily cross-referenced, so that each bit of information has associations to many other bits (e.g., Bédard & Chi, 1992; Bransford, Brown & Cocking, 1999; Reed, 2017). As a result, experts have better access to what they know. It’s clear, therefore, that there are multiple factors separating novices from experts, but these factors all hinge on the processes we’ve already discussed-with an emphasis subproblems, and memory search. Apparently, then, we can use our theorizing so far to describe on analogies, how people (in particular, novices and experts) differ from one another. e. Demonstration 13.1: Analogies  Analogies are a powerful help in solving problems, and they are also an excellent way to convey new information. Imagine that you’re a teacher, trying to explain some points about astronomy. Which of the following explanations do you think would be more effective? General Problem-Solving Methods

Literal Version

Collapsing stars spin faster and faster as they fold in on themselves and their size decreases. This principle called phenomenon of spinning faster as the star’s size shrinks occurs because of a “conservation of angular momentum.”

Analogy Version

Collapsing stars spin faster as their size shrinks. Stars are thus like ice skaters, who pirouette faster as they pull in their arms. Both stars and skaters operate by a principle called “conservation of angular momentum”

Which version of the explanations would make it easier for students to answer a question like the following one?

What would happen if a star “expanded” instead of collapsing?

a) Its rate of rotation would increase.

b) Its rate of rotation would decrease.

c) Its orbital speed would increase.

d) Its orbital speed would decrease.

 

Does your intuition tell you that the analogy version would be better as a teaching tool? If so, then your intuition is in line with the data! Participants in one study analogy version. Later, they were asked questions about these were presented with materials just like these, in either a literal or an materials, and those instructed via analogy reliably did better. Do you think your teachers make effective use of analogy? Can you think of ways they can improve their use of analogy? Defining the Problem  Experts, we’ve said, define problems in their area of expertise in terms of the problems’ underlying dynamic. As a result, the experts are more likely to break a problem into meaningful parts, more likely to realize what other problems are analogous to the current problem, and so more likely to benefit from analogies. Clearly, then, there are better and worse ways to define a problem-ways that will lead to a problem? And what solution and ways that will obstruct it. But what does it mean to “define” a determines how people define the problems they encounter?  III-Defined and Well-Defined Problems  For many problems, the goal and the options for solving the problems are clearly stated at the start: Get all the Hobbits to the other side of the river, using the boat. Solve the math problem, using the axioms stated. Many problems, though, are rather different. For example, we all hope for peace in the world, but what will this goal involve? There will be no fighting, of course, but what other traits will the goal have? Will the nations currently on the map still be in place? How will disputes be settled? It’s also unclear what steps should be tried in an effort toward reaching this goal. Would diplomatic negotiations work? Or would economic measures be more effective? Problems like this one are said to be ill-defined, with no clear statement at the outset of how the goal should be characterized or what operations might serve to reach that goal. Other examples of ill-defined problems include “having a good time while on vacation” and “saving money for college (Halpern, 1984; Kahney, 1986; Schraw, Dunkle, &Bendixen, 1995) When confronting ill-defined problems, your best bet is often to create subgoals, because many ill-defined problems have reasonably well-defined parts, and by solving each of these you can move toward solving the overall problem. A different strategy is to add some structure to the problem by including extra constraints or extra assumptions. In this way, the problem becomes well-defined instead of ill-defined-perhaps with a narrower set of options in how you might approach it, but with a clearly specified goal state and, eventually, a manageable set of operations to try.  Functional Fixedness  Even for well-defined problems, there’s usually more than one way to understand the problem. Consider the problem in Figure 13.9. To solve it, you need to cease thinking of the box as a container and instead think of it as a potential platform. Thus, your chances of solving the problem depend on how you represent the box in your thoughts, and we can show this by encouraging one representation or another. In a classic study, participants were given the equipment shown in Figure 13.9A: some matches, a box of tacks, and a candle. This configuration (implicitly) underscored the box’s conventional function. As a result, the configuration increased functional fixedness-the tendency to be rigid in how one thinks about an object’s function. With fixedness in place, the problem was rarely solved (Duncker, 1945; Fleck & Weisberg, 2004)General Problem-Solving Methods.

Family Genogram Project

Building Your Family Genogram

Part I (GenoPro Genogram Software)

A genogram (pronounced: jen-uh-gram) is “a pictorial representation of family relationships across several generations. It is a convenient organizing device to help you identify family patterns or develop hypotheses about family functioning” (GenoPro.com). The genogram resembles a family tree; however, it includes additional relationships among individuals. This instrument facilitates the practitioner and his client’s identification an understanding of patterns in family history. The genogram also does a better job than a pedigree chart in mapping out relationships and traits.

Even though there are a plethora of books and websites on the subject of genograms, it is worth noting that Monica McGoldrick and Randy Gerson are responsible for its initial development and popularity in clinical settings. The structure of a genogram is by and large determined by the imagination and creativity of its author. Some of the most common features on a genogram are information related to the number of families, children in a given family, and the birth order of the family members—including the number of births and deaths Family Genogram Project.

Index Person: In constructing the genogram, identify yourself as the “index person” and complete the genogram on your family.

Focus: The focus of this genogram will be on family strengths and resilience, family patterns, rules or ways of being, and the overall health of the family. Of course, you should also address any issues and concerns that may be discovered; however, do not make the genogram problem-focused, even though this is typically how it is used in counseling.

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Construction: You will submit your genogram through the assignment manager via GenoPro, found by clicking the “assignments” button. This submission will come in as a GenoPro document. You will also need to attach your narrative on an MS Word document. Make sure to include the following items:

· Two preceding generations—that is, the genogram must include the index person, his/her parents, and his/her grandparents (three generations, in all). It would also be imperative that, in the event of the index person being involved in a marital or significant relationship, mention must be made of the significant other involved, including their immediate family such as their parents, siblings, and children. In the case where the index person is either a parent or a grand-parent, his/her children must be included in the genogram.

· Use the symbols as illustrated within the GenoPro software to indicate the nature of many of the relationships among family members. Be sure to indicate yourself as the index person by drawing a double circle or double square around yourself. Do not forget to include the current date on your genogram.

· Use the relationship lines to indicate significant relationships within the family system. Do not use the “normal” line provided by GenoPro. This only crowds the graphic and makes it difficult to read.

· Include a legend at the bottom right corner of the genogram document. The legend must only include items represented on the genogram.

· In order to make it easy to understand, ensure that there are notes on the genogram graphic regarding people, family events, etc., in their appropriate places (for example, on the side of a relevant person or generation). Even though this is not required for the successful completion of the assignment, it may be helpful to interview other family members about important areas of their family history. It would also be a good idea to include labels (a word or two will do) about each family member’s strengths—especially those that are either known by the index person or have a relevant connection to them.

· GenoPro gives you the freedom you need to manipulate your genogram to allow enhanced viewing on a computer system. You can shorten or lengthen lines, move entire family units around to maximize space, and more. Your objective is to work with the graph to create a genogram that is easy to view and can be understood at a glance Family Genogram Project.

Analysis: Once you have completed your genogram, you will need to interpret your family map. Analyze the genogram and who you are in the context of the family based on race/ethnicity, culture, class, gender, spiritual tradition, family life cycle, etc.

Part II (Microsoft Word document)

Written Narrative: After analyzing your genogram graphic following the guidelines above, state your interpretation of yourself in clear terms. Do this by writing a paper that describes the contributions that religion, gender, race, culture, etc., and your own unique family history have made to your personal identity. Do not forget to demonstrate your understanding of key concepts learned in this course. Apart from the quality of your written work, you will also be graded on your ability to widely, deeply, and accurately analyze and utilize theoretical concepts in describing your family’s interactional process.

Rest assured that this paper will be kept confidential. Be reminded that you are solely responsible for any information you choose to disclose in this project. Also note that you are under no obligation to reveal any information that you choose not to reveal.

The following outline must be used for your paper, using current APA format:

I. Briefly introduce your family. Discuss the sociopolitical, cultural, economic, spiritual, etc. issues in your family. Do not spend a lot of time describing demographic details that can be observed on the genogram.

· You can use first person in this narrative.

· You will not need an abstract; however, you will need a cover page. A reference page must be provided if you use citations.

II. Using the data gathered and the analyses you have made based upon your genogram and other resources, address the following questions:

A. What do you understand about yourself within the context of this multigenerational family?

B. How do the cultural, historical, and personal characteristic aspects of the information impact your understanding of the self?

C. If at all, what are the family lifecycle-related issues in the past or present that have influenced your family and/or interface with question D?

D. What intergenerational dynamics, patterns and/or themes that you have identified influence you (or others) in your current family? Jump to the last section of the present document, “Interpreting Genograms” and then draw a conclusion about your analysis.

E. What areas do you need to work on in order to become a better spouse, parent, counselor, and godly person?

Conclude this part of the assignment with personal reflections on the development of this project. Were there any issues that came to light? What did you learn?

This assignment is due by 11:59 p.m. (ET) on Sunday of Module/Week 6.

How to Build a Genogram

(Many of the symbols and definitions are adopted from GenoPro.com) Family Genogram Project

Although there is general agreement on the basic genogram structure and symbols, there are some variations from one author to another and some in the GenoPro software program on how to depict certain family situations, such as cutoffs, adoptions etc. (Bowen, 1980; Kramer, 1985; McGoldrick, Gerson, & Shellenberger, 1999). The following are the common to genogram construction. The male is represented by a square and the female by a circle. You may also use a diamond for a pet and the question mark for unknown gender.

Deaths are typically represented by putting an “X” through the symbol. (If you ever do a genogram with a client, ask the client how he/she would like to represent the death since putting an “X” through the symbol without their permission could be traumatizing.)

For one to be called a parent, they would have to have at least 1 of the 3 types of children: biological/natural, foster, or adopted. On the genogram, a triangle is the standard diagrammatic representation of a pregnancy, a miscarriage, or an abortion. While an abortion is represented with a horizontal line on top of the triangle, a diagonal cross in the same position indicates the death of a baby through a miscarriage. As for a still birth, it is displayed the same as its gender, though the gender symbol is two times smaller, while the diagonal cross remains the same size.

The reason is obvious as to why the children on a genogram are placed below the family line, starting from the oldest to the youngest, and from the left hand to right. Take note that these are vitally important rules to remember down the road, as the family system becomes labyrinthine. The GenoPro software, however, does allow variations in this area.

Birth, marriage, divorce, and death dates may be indicated by the initial and year (i.e., b. 89). The ages of the individuals are put in as numbers in the markers. Alcoholism (or other relevant issues) is frequently indicated by filling in the bottom part of the individual’s marker. Family Genogram Project

Genogram symbols for child links and special birth

The child links are joined together for multiple births, such as twins, triplets, etc. Identical twins (or triplets, etc.) are displayed with a horizontal line between the siblings. In the example below, the mother had two fraternal twin brothers, two identical twin sisters and triplets, one of which died at birth.

Child links are joined for multiple births such as twins and triplets

There are 4 general rules to keep in mind:

1. The female is always at the right of the family and the male is always at the left.

2. Where there is ambiguity, it is recommended to assume a male-female relationship instead of a same sex relationship.

3. It is assumed that a spouse must always be closer to his/her first partner than to subsequent partners (if any).

4. The youngest child is always at the right of the family and the oldest child is always at the left. Family Genogram Project

Family Relationships

The next genogram component is the family relationship to describe the union of 2 individuals, typically through marriage. Other family relationships are divorce, separation, cohabitation, engagement, etc. Each completed genogram needs a legend to describe the various symbols. This legend should include the emotional relationship and family relationship lines indicated on your genogram.

GenoPro uses this type of indicator for emotional and relationship lines. When there may be a discrepancy between this document and GenoPro, use GenoPro.

Legend of family relationships

Each type of family relationship is described in the table below:

	This family relationship represents a married couple. There is no special symbol to distinguish a civil marriage and/or a religious marriage.
	This is the generic symbol to describe a married couple no longer living together. A separation is displayed by a single oblique bar.
	The married couple is separated and started legal procedure for an eventual divorce. If you know a couple is separated but you are not sure about the legal procedure, it is recommended to use the separation in fact symbol.
	The married couple has divorced. No comments.
	The marriage was annulled. This is a rare case, but it must be included.
	One of the spouses died while married. Use this symbol only when the surviving spouse re-married. Otherwise, everyone in your ancestry will be widowed.
	The two individuals are in the process of getting married.
	Same as above except the individuals are living together before getting married.
	There is a legal paper trail about the cohabitation. The two individuals have written contract about the cohabitation status, involving benefits such as parental responsibility, common ownership, and inheritance.
	The two individuals no longer live together and are in the process of terminating their cohabitation contract.
	The cohabitation contract has been terminated.
	One of the partners is deceased. This situation is similar to widowed; the difference is the two individuals had a cohabitation contract rather than a marriage contract. Again, use this symbol if the surviving partner has had other partners, or every legal cohabitation will end by either a separation or a death.
	Although there is no legal definition of cohabitation, it generally means to live together as a couple without being married. Use this relationship to define the generic common law spouse. There is no such thing as illegal cohabitation.
	The generic symbol of two individuals no longer living together.
	The two individuals lived together until one of the partner died. Same as legal cohabitation and decease, but no cohabitation agreement had been written.
	A relationship where two individuals live together, but there is no affection towards another.

The action of seeing someone or dating. Be aware the terms boyfriend and girlfriend are often used for cohabitation, but not exclusively.

	The two individuals are no longer dating. This could be called ex-boyfriend or ex-girlfriend. Be aware, the term ex-boyfriend and ex-girlfriend may also be used for cohabitation and separation, but not exclusively.
	This is the polite term for having a mistress or a one night stand. Select this relation if children are the product of such a relationship.
	One individual is abusing or has abused the other individual, including date-rape, drug-rape, and wife-rape. This type of relationship is mostly used in therapy or when a child was the product of such relationship.
	A relationship not specified in the list above or is unknown to the creator of the genogram. Use this symbol to highlight an unusual type of relationship.
	A blank value is used to describe an unspecified relationship when creating a new family. This is the symbol used to indicate that the user has not yet specified the type of relationship.

A family always has two parents. Use the appropriate family relationship symbol to describe the status of the family. For instance, a single parent family (single mother or single father) is still a family of two individuals, but one individual left. If a new partner or spouse is replacing one parent, create a new family to describe the relationship of the new couple.

Emotional Relationships

Although the family relationship may describe the emotional bond between the two parents, the emotional relationship component can be used to describe the emotional bond between any two individuals in the genealogy tree. Family Genogram Project

Legend of emotional relationships

Each type of emotional relationship is described in the table below. The legend symbols have been made bigger so you can see them better.

	Define a cutoff relationship where the two individuals have no contact at all; characterized by extreme disengagement and emotional intensity.
	Define an apathetic relationship where one or both of the individuals is indifferent to the other.
	Define a distant relationship between two individuals. Communication is very limited, usually because of lifestyle differences.
	Define a plain/normal relationship. This is not very useful, except to highlight a normal relationship among massively dysfunctional relationships. Therefore do not use this unless there is a situation as stated above. This emotional relationship may resemble the identical twins; however if you take a closer look, the line is colored in gray. When twins are present, the child links are connected together, producing an inverted V. If a plain/normal relationship has to be displayed, then create a non-linear line between the two twins.
	Define a close relationship (friendship) between two individuals. The two individuals are friends and share secrets.
	Define an intimate relationship, where communication is open, uncensored, and without secrets.
	Define a fused relationship between two individuals. Each submerges “self” in the other, and the partners become fused with little space for their own identities. There are great books about this topic.
	Define a hostile relationship between two individuals. The two individuals have conflicts and argue on major issues.
	Define a distant-hostile relationship between two individuals. The two individuals rarely see each other, but when they are together, they argue and are hostile towards another.
	Define a close-hostile relationship between two individuals. These people have frequent contact but argue and keep secrets from one another.
	Define a fused-hostile relationship between two individuals. These individuals are always together yet unable to live without arguing.
	Define a violent relationship between two individuals. The two individuals have conflicts which result in extreme actions such as physical force or excessive power.
	The two individuals rarely see each other, but when they are together, they argue and exhibit violent behavior.
	The two individuals have frequent contact, yet argue and exhibit violent behavior when together.
	A violent behavior to avoid a break in the relationship when intimacy/fusion is difficult or impossible to maintain. Fusion compromises the feelings, identities and self-direction of each, thus creating instability.
	One individual is abusing another individual. Use this relationship if you don’t know the exact type of abuse.
	One individual is physically abusing another individual. Any non-accidental injury to an individual, typically to a child or a woman. This includes hitting, kicking, slapping, shaking, burning, pinching, hair pulling, biting, choking, throwing, shoving, whipping, or paddling.
	One individual is emotionally abusing another individual. Any attitude or behavior which interferes with mental health or social development is emotional abuse. This includes yelling, screaming, name-calling, shaming, negative comparisons to others, telling them they are “bad, no good, worthless” or “a mistake”.
	One individual is sexually abusing another individual. Sexual abuse is any sexual act between an adult and child, or a forced sexual action between two adults. This includes fondling, penetration, intercourse, exploitation, pornography, exhibitionism, child prostitution, group sex, oral sex, or forced observation of sexual acts.
	Failure to provide for a child’s physical needs. This includes lack of supervision, inappropriate housing or shelter, inadequate provision of food, inappropriate clothing for season or weather, abandonment, denial of medical care, and inadequate hygiene.
	One individual is focused unhealthily (obsessed) on another individual.
	The two individuals never met. Again, this relationship is not used often but can be handy to explicitly confirm the two individuals never met. It is up to the creator of the genogram to give details about the relationship, such as “never met physically” but “met online”.
	An emotional relationship not defined in the list. Use a comment to elaborate on the details of the relationship

Creating Genograms

The following are questions to consider in creating a genogram. Review your personal history and the people, existing support systems, or events that may have influenced you.

1. Who lives in the household? Where do other family members live?

2. How is each person related?

3. How do other family members view you?

4. What are changes that have occurred in the family?

5. Has anyone else lived with your family? When? Where are they now?

6. Are there any family members who have had a medical or mental illness of any kind? Who are they and how are they related to you? When did the problem(s) begin? What kind of treatment was helpful for them or available to them?

7. Are there any family members who are very close? Friends who are close? Who are they?

8. Which members help out when you need them?

9. How do you get along with each member in your home? In your family?

10. Whom do you see as the strong one? The weak one? The sick one? The bad one? The mad one? The one with all the problems? The dominant one? The submissive one? The successful one? The failure? The warm one, cold one, caring one, distant one, or the selfish one?

11. Has anyone in your family had serious medical problems? Who and what did they have?

12. What roles have you played in your family?

13. How did the family react when a particular family member was born? When a particular family member died?

14. Are there any family members who do not speak to each other or who have ever had a period of not speaking? Are there any who were/are in serious conflict?

15. Are there any family members who are extremely close? Who helps out when needed? In whom do family members confide?

16. What sort of issues occurred between the couples in your family?

17. How does each parent get along with each child? Have any family members had particular problems dealing with their children?

18. Any job changes? Unemployment? How do you like your job? What is the economic situation?

Interpreting Genograms

There are many ways to interpret a genogram. As a rule of thumb, the data must be analyzed for the following:

1. Multi-Generational Issues: Repetitive symptom, relationship, or functioning patterns can be seen across the family and over generations. Thus, you ought to examine the genogram for repeated triangles, coalitions, cut-offs, patterns of conflict, over-and under-functioning, etc.

2. Dates: Dates provide information that helps put events in perspective. For example, coincidence of dates (e.g., death of one family member or anniversary of death occurring at the same time as symptom onset in another, or the age at symptom onset coinciding with the age of problem development of another family member. Dates throw light on the impact of sequential or simultaneous happenings whose relatedness may be otherwise hard to ascertain. For example, if you find out that an individual or family was dealing with several mishaps within a given year, you can see the effect these stresses would have on family members, such as a young baby or an older child leaving home.

3. Change and Life Cycle Transitions: Changes in functioning and relationships that correspond with critical family life events. Of particular interest are untimely life cycle transitions (e.g., births, marriages, or deaths) that occur “off-schedule.”

4. Traumas: Traumas can have a dramatic impact on people. Experiencing such events as abuse; war; natural disasters; etc., their timing, and how people reacted are critical to examine.

5. Gender: Gender beliefs and values do have an influential role in families. They often create complications within the context of cross-cultural marriages, especially when involving members of different gender beliefs. A common example of such a case is if a family has sent clear messages that men are strong and do not show emotions (especially hurtful ones), you may come to understand why a given younger-generation married couple would be struggling to communicate.

6. Secrets: Secrets in a family not only take energy away from a family, but may reveal important information about boundaries and communication patterns in the family system.

7. Losses: The issue of losses is a fundamental factor in genograms. Some of the points to note under this category are: the event of sudden and critical illness, economic hardships, sudden death, disabilities, unanticipated loss or shortage of income, miscarriages, divorces, etc. Even though the impact of such losses varies from person to person, the question is: “To what extent was this event perceived as a loss?” Not all these events are perceived as losses, and the depth of loss also does vary greatly.

Much of the information and materials in this document were taken from the GenoPro website such as the rules, symbols, family relations, emotional relationship pages. Permission was given to do so by the developer of GenoPro to the developer of this document.

GenoPro Software. www.genopro.com [permission to use symbols and other materials from

GenoPro has been granted to the creator of the document] Family Genogram Project

McGoldrick, M., Gerson, R., & Petry, S. (2007). Genograms: Assessment and intervention