Definitions of Family Structure

Family structure reflects relationships at the juncture of biological relatedness, marital and partnership status, and living arrangements. There are several sources of data available that provide information on family structure (see US Census Bureau 2009). The longest established data source is the Decennial Census, first taken in 1790. Current Population Surveys (CPS) began in 1947 and were followed by the National Survey of Family Growth (NSFG) in 1973, the Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) in 1978, and the American Community Survey in 2005. The strengths and weaknesses of these sources of data vary as do their estimates on family structure. Some surveys are better for estimating the prevalence of children living with unmarried parents (e.g., CPS), whereas others provide better estimates of complex families and living arrangements of children tracked over time (e.g., SIPP). In addition, the NSFG was undertaken to provide additional information on fertility, relationship status, and children. For example, from 1973 to 1995 the NSFG focused only on women; both men and women were surveyed in 2002; and in 2006–11 and 2011–15 data collection of large samples of both men and women were obtained. These surveys provide the best estimates of past and emerging family structures, such as those families where multiple partner fertility occurs (a father or mother with biological children from at least one prior partner).

Prior to the availability of these data sources, the Decennial Census provided most of the available information regarding family structure. Interestingly, from 1790 to 1940, “family” (those related by marriage, blood, or adoption) was not distinguished from “household” (which could contain more than one family). Most of the early censuses (1790–1880) focused on race, nativity, parentage, occupation, and dwelling. It was not until 1880 that enumeration of “relationships between household members (e.g., father, son, cousin, grandmother) and “civil condition” (marital status) were included. Since then, additional information has been added that allows the differentiation between family structures, and this has resulted in key definitions that are commonly accepted across data sources and are reflected in the reporting of family structure.

Several definitions regarding children are important to understanding family structure. However, unless otherwise noted, “children” always refers to only those under 18 years of age and residing in the household regardless of age or marital status. In some studies, reference is made to “own children” which includes only the biological, adopted, and stepchildren of the householder. Foster children are not included in either category. Also, “related children” is used with reference to a householder’s own children and to all other children under 18 years of age in the household who are related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption. “Stepchildren” refers to children who co-reside with a biological parent and stepparent, although the adults may not be married. “Stepsiblings” are children who share a parent, but that parent is the biological parent of one child and the stepparent of the other child. Last, “half-siblings” are children who share one biological parent; some may also have stepsiblings Family Structures Discussion.

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Historical Changes in Family Structure

Historically, family structure has changed. These notable changes are influenced by other changes in the population: fewer and later marriages, marriages of shorter duration, more divorce followed by repartnering or remarriage, more nonmarital unions (cohabitation), more children born outside marriage, and more women employed outside the home even with very young children (see Cherlin 2010). For example, since 1950 the number of children residing with a married couple has decreased from slightly over 90 percent to about 74 percent. Concomitantly, the number of both mother-only and father-only families increased during this period, with mother-only families being more prevalent. Family structure is linked with race such that black children are much less likely to reside with two parents compared to all other children, with estimates in 2010 of around 50 percent. Moreover, of all children living in mother-only families, about half of the mothers had never married, and about 30 percent were with divorced mothers.

Another example of family structure changes over time shows that divorce was uncommon prior to the 1900s, so stepfamilies were commonly formed following the death of a spouse. Such newly formed stepfamilies did not experience the complication of a living nonresident parent, so children were not expected to transition between the separate homes of their parents as in the case of access agreements. The term “binuclear family” was coined in the 1970s to represent families of divorce where children belonged to two households. Yet another example of family structure change results from the delay in marriage and increase in divorce. We have witnessed an increase in nonmarital unions, and it is not uncommon that such unions also involve children. Thus, the simple designation of one- and two-parent families does not communicate the complexity inherent in these two categories which include the intersection of number of parents present and marital/partnership status. Included in one-parent families are distinctions between never married parents and divorced parents, as well as a cohabiting parent (both never married and divorced) and a current partner. Similarly, two-parent families can be used to refer to two-parent biological families (married or not) or some form of stepfamily (married or not).

A typical reporting of children’s living arrangements via CPS data provides a good deal of information about both the child and her/his living context, whether living with both parents and their marital status, living with mother only and her marital status, living with father only and his marital status, or living with no parent present (see US Census Bureau 2013a)Family Structures Discussion. For example, information is provided on: the child’s sex, age, and race (white alone, black alone, Asian alone, and all other combinations); the presence and number of siblings; the presence of a parent’s unmarried partner; parents’ highest level of education; the nativity of both child and parents; the presence of grandparents; the presence of other adults; child support receipt; a stay-at-home parent; the labor force involvement of child and parents; family income; health insurance coverage; and poverty. The most recent data from 2012 (US Census Bureau 2013c) reveal that 68.1 percent of children under the age of 18 were living with two parents (biological and/or stepparent) and that almost all of these couples were married. Of children living with a parent, 94.7 percent resided with at least one biological parent (28.3 percent were with one parent and 61.8 percent were with both parents), 5.8 percent lived with a stepparent (4.1 percent of the 5.8 percent were stepfather families), 1.5 percent lived with at least one adoptive parent, and 3.6 percent lived with no parent present. Unfortunately, the data do not allow us to know whether the children who live with single mothers also live part of the time with their father, who may be remarried or repartnered, nor is information available on the father’s household and his marital status in such cases. Children in these households are designated as living with a single parent, when they are also a member of a stepmother family. Also, if there are adult stepchildren in the home, these are not included in any estimates. Children living with no parent present include several categories: grandparent only, other relative only, nonrelatives only, and other arrangementsFamily Structures Discussion.

There is also information on multigenerational households that include grandparents, and this information differentiates between children living with both parents, one parent, and no parents, whether the parents are married, cohabiting, or single. Also, information is available on whether the household includes both a grandmother and grandfather or only the grandmother or grandfather. For example, recent estimates from the United States Census Bureau show that, in 2012, 3.7 percent of children under 18 lived with both a grandmother and a grandfather, whereas 5 percent lived with a grandmother only, and 0.9 percent lived with a grandfather only (Lofquist et al. 2012)Family Structures Discussion. Other information shows that children living with at least one grandparent is less common if they are also living with both parents rather than living with only a mother, only a father, or with neither parent.

Similar patterns can be seen in family structures globally. While there is a decrease in two-parent families, they remain the majority structure around the world. They are more common in Asia and the Middle East compared to the Americas, Europe, Oceania, and sub-Saharan Africa. Cohabitation is more common in Europe, North American Oceania, and especially South America. Childbearing outside marriage is most common in South America and Europe, and least common in Asia and the Middle East. Extended families are most common in South Africa (70 percent of children) and other regions (sub-Saharan Africa and part of South America).

Limitations in Family Structure Measurement

There are several limitations with the sources of data currently available. These data typically capture family structure at one point. Unfortunately, the data do not capture structural change or the more nuanced family structures of today. As mentioned, most reports do not recognize that children may be members of multiple households (e.g., single-mother household and remarried or repartnered father/stepmother household). This becomes critical in the case of unmarried families, because partnership status is often unclear. While the parents may be cohabiting at one point, at a later point it cannot always be determined with confidence that the cohabiting partner is the parent reported earlier. Also, some couples may be dating, but live together only some of the time. Further, because many of the data represent the household, the following two households will look identical: (1) a married couple and their two children in the household, and (2) the same couple but the father also has a child from a prior partner who lives elsewhere. Clearly, future data collection must allow for greater specificity in designating the diversity of family structure in contemporary families while retaining adequately broad categories to allow for meaningful comparisons with the past Family Structures Discussion.