Population affected by disabilities.
Population affected by disabilities.
Chapter 21 Populations Affected by Disabilities Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Most people whose lives do not end abruptly will experience disability. – Nies & McEwen (2015) Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 2 Doing a Self-Assessment What comes to mind when you think of someone with a disability? Picture yourself as a person with a disability. Imagine yourself as a nurse with a visible disability, or a client receiving care from a nurse with a disability. Think about living in a family affected by disability. What is the experience of living with disability within your community? Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 3 Definitions for Disability Disability is the interaction between individuals with a health condition and personal and environmental factors. – World Health Organization, 2012 Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by
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Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 4 WHO International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health Disability is an umbrella term covering impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions (individual level). An impairment is a problem in body function or structure—activity limitation or participation restriction (micro level). A handicap is a disadvantage resulting from an impairment or disability that prevents fulfillment of an expected role (macro level). Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 5 Table 21-1 Characteristic Definition Measurability Illustrations Level of analysis Impairment Disability Physical deviation from May be objective and measurable normal structure, function, physical organization, or development Objective and measurable May be objective and measurable Micro level (e.g., body organ) Individual level (e.g., person) Handicap Not objective or measurable; is an experience related to the responses of others Not objective or measurable; is an experience related to the responses of others Spina bifida, spinal Cannot walk Reflects physical and cord injury, amputation, unassisted; uses psychological and detached retina crutches and/or a characteristics of the manual or power person, culture, and wheelchair; blindness specific circumstances Macro level (e.g., societal) Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 6 National Agenda for Prevention of Disabilities (NAPD) Model Figure 21-1 Reprinted with permission from Pope AM, Tarlov AR, editors: Disability in America: toward a national agenda for prevention, Washington, DC, 1991, Institute of Medicine, National Academy Press. Copyright © 1991 by the National Academy of Sciences. Courtesy National Academy Press, Washington, DC. Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 7 Quality of Life Issues Transportation to a needed service Cost of care Appointment challenges Language barriers Financial issues Migrant/noninsured issues Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 8 Models for Disability 1. Medical model—a defect in need of cure through medical intervention 2. Rehabilitation model—a defect to be treated by a rehabilitation professional 3. Moral model—connected with sin and shame 4. Disability model—socially constructed Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 9 Disability: A Socially Constructed Issue Disability is a complex, multifaceted, culturally rich concept that cannot be readily defined, explained, or measured (Mont, 2007). Whether the inability to perform a certain function is seen as disabling depends on socio-environmental barriers (e.g., attitudinal, architectural, sensory, cognitive, and economic), inadequate support services, and other factors (Kaplan, 2009). Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 10 “Medicalization” Issues Nurse needs to differentiate … ➢ A person who has an illness and becomes disabled secondary to the illness versus … ➢ A person who has a disability, but may not need treatment Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 11 “Medicalization” Issues (Cont.) Nurse’s interaction with PWD and families ➢ Approach on an eye-to-eye level ➢ Listen to understand ➢ Collaborate with the person/family ➢ Make plans and goals that meet the other’s needs and draw on strengths and improve weaknesses ➢ Empower and affirm the worth and knowledge of the person/family with a disability ➢ Promote self-determination and allow choices Note: PWD = persons with disabilities Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 12 Historical Perspectives Long history of institutionalization/segregation Often viewed as sick and helpless In the 20th century, special interest groups emerged to advocate for PWD (e.g., ARC) Tragedies include Hitler’s euthanasia program Deinstitutionalization began in 1960s-1970s Stereotypical images still common in literature and media; these images influence prevailing perceptions of disability Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 13 Historical Context for Disability Early attitudes toward PWD ➢ Set apart from others ➢ Viewed as different or unusual ➢ Documented in carvings and writings ➢ Infanticide or left to die (not in Jewish culture) ➢ Viewed as unclean and/or sinful ➢ Served as entertainers, circus performers, and sideshow exhibitions Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 14 Historical Context 18th and 19th century attitudes ➢ No scientific model for understanding and treating ➢ Disability seen as an irreparable condition caused by supernatural agency ➢ Viewed as sick and helpless ➢ Expected to participate in whatever treatment was deemed necessary to cure or perform Industrial Revolution stimulated a societal need for increased education ➢ ➢ If not third-grade level = feeble-minded Special schools established in early 1800s Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 15 Historical Context (Cont.) 20th century attitudes ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ Special interest groups were formed First federal vocational rehabilitation legislation passed in early 1920s Involuntary sterilization of many with intellectual disabilities ARC (Association for Retarded Children) began to advocate for children with intellectual disabilities—today is Association for Retarded Citizens ARC is “world’s largest community-based organization of and for people with intellectual and developmental disabilities” (ARC, 2009) Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 16 Historical Context (Cont.) 20th century attitudes ➢ One of the most horrendous tragedies under Hitler’s euthanasia or “good death” program • Killed at least 5000 mentally and physically disabled children by starvation or lethal overdoses • Killed 70,274 adults with disabilities by 1941 • Over 200,000 people exterminated because they were “unworthy of life” ➢ Deinstitutionalization movement in 1960s and 1970s • Community-based Independent Living Centers established Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 17 Historical Context (Cont.) Contemporary conceptualization ➢ Stereotypical images remain common in literature and media • Population portrayed as a burden to society or from pity/pathos or heroic “supercrip” perspectives • “just as the paralytic cannot clear his mind of his impairment, society will not let him forget it.” (Murphy, 1990, p. 106) ➢ Societal stigma still exists • Teasing or bullying often occurs in schools • Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and American with Disabilities Act of 1990 prohibit “disability harassment” Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 18 Characteristics of Disability Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) of 1990 and Rehabilitation Act of 1973 defined disability according to limitations in a person’s ability to carry out a major life activity. ➢ Major life activities: ability to breathe, walk, see, hear, speak, work, care for oneself, perform manual tasks, and learn U.S. Census Bureau (2006) defines disability as long-lasting physical, mental, or emotional condition that creates a limitation or inability to function according to certain criteria. Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 19 Examples of Disabilities Physical disabilities Sensory disabilities Intellectual disabilities Serious emotional disturbances Learning disabilities Significant chemical and environmental sensitivities Health problems Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 20 Measurement of Disability Survey of Income and Program Participation (SIPP) ➢ Functional activities ➢ Activities of daily living (ADLs) ➢ Instrumental activities of daily living (IADLs) American Community Survey (ACS) ➢ Surveys for disability limitation in six areas that affect function or activity (sensory, physical, mental/emotional, self-care, ability to go outside the home, employment) Other organizations also collect disability data Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 21 Prevalence of Disability In 2010, approximately 18.7% of civilian noninstitutional population aged 5 years and older had a long-lasting condition or disability. Of those with a disability, 12.6% had a “severe” disability. Prevalence varies by race, age, and gender. It is important for health care policymakers and health care providers to recognize that the prevalence of disability is increasing. Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 22 Prevalence of Disability in Children Approximately 15.2% of households with children have at least one child with a special health care need (disabling condition). – National Survey of Children with Special Health Care Needs (2009/2010) A disability is defined by a communication-related difficulty, mental or emotional condition, difficulty with regular schoolwork, difficulty getting along with other children, difficulty walking or running, use of some assistive device, and/or difficulty with ADLs Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 23 Recommendation for the Nurse Listen to parental concerns ➢ ➢ ➢ “Something is not right” Establishes an important bond with parents Nurse can serve as an intermediary Regularly assess for key developmental milestones ➢ Compare with predicted values ➢ Work with team of resource providers on IEP Be cognizant of disability within the context of culture and aging Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 24 Legislation Affecting People with Disabilities Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) (1975); reauthorized in 1997, 2004 ➢ ➢ Ensured a free appropriate public education (FAPE) in the least-restrictive setting to children with disabilities based on their needs Parents, students, and professionals join together to develop an Individualized Education Program (IEP), including measurable special educational goals and related services for the child. Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 25 Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 and ADA Amendments Act of 2008 ADA: Landmark civil rights legislation that prohibits discrimination toward people with disabilities in everyday activities ➢ ➢ Guarantees equal opportunities for people with disabilities related to employment, transportation, public accommodations, public services, and telecommunications Provides protections to people with disabilities similar to those provided to any person on basis of race, color, sex, national origin, age, and religion Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 26 Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 and ADA Amendments Act of 2008 (Cont.) ADA (Cont.) ➢ ➢ Refers to a “qualified individual” with a disability as a person with a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more major life activities or bodily functions, a person with a record of such an impairment, or a person who is regarded as having such an impairment. Qualifying organizations must provide reasonable accommodations unless they can demonstrate that the accommodation will cause significant difficulty or expense, producing an undue hardship. Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 27 Ticket to Work and Work Incentives Improvement Act (TWWIIA) Increases access to vocational services; provides new methods for retaining health insurance after returning to work Increases available choices when obtaining employment services, vocational rehabilitation services, and other support services needed to get or keep a job Became law in 1999, amended in 2008 Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 28 Public Assistance Programs Cash assistance ➢ ➢ Supplemental Security Income—SSI Social Security Disability Insurance—SSDI Food stamps Public/subsidized housing Costs associated with disability ➢ Gaps in employment, income, education, access to transportation, attendance at religious services Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 29 Health Disparities in Quality and Access Disparities are caused by … ➢ Differences in access to care ➢ Provider biases ➢ Poor provider-patient communication ➢ Poor health literacy Persons with disabilities experience … ➢ ➢ Higher rates of chronic illness Increased risks for medical, physical, social, emotional, and/or spiritual secondary issues People with intellectual disabilities are ➢ Undervalued and disadvantaged Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 30 Systems of Support for People With Disabilities Figure 21-2 Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 31 The Experience of Disability PWD may be largest minority group in the United States Different experiences, depending on … ➢ ➢ ➢ Temporary disability Permanent disability from accident or disease Disability from progressive decline of a chronic illness Benchmark event is acceptance of the label of “disabled” Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 32 Children With Disabilities (CWD) Family and caregiver responses ➢ ➢ Redefine image and expectations for child and self Sibling response influenced by age, coping, peer relationships, parents, impact on family Levels of parental adjustment ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ The ostrich phase Special designation Normalization Self-actualization Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 33 Family Research Outcomes Established various benefits, amid challenges Families with satisfying emotional support experience fewer potentially negative effects of unplanned or distressing events. Parents may grieve the loss of idealized or expected child over time. Supportive relationship is needed. Empowerment and enabling decision making on behalf of CWD is important. Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 34 Knowledgeable Client A person who lives with a disability commonly becomes an expert at knowing what works best for his or her body. Knowledgeable Nurse The nurse who has information about the disability and the available community and governmental resources. Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 35 Strategies for the CH Nurse Do not assume anything. Adopt the client’s perspective. Listen to and learn from client. Gather data from the perspective of the client and family. Care for the client and family, not for the disability. Be well informed about community resources. Become a powerful advocate. Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 36 Dealing With Ethical Issues Spiritual perspectives Quality of life (QOL) and justice perspectives Proper use of scientific advances Self-determination, deinstitutionalization, and disability rights Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 37 When the Nurse Has a Disability Education programs and employers must provide reasonable accommodations for qualified students and nurses. Technical aspects of nursing tend to discriminate; nursing should emphasize “humanistic” capacities. Type of setting influences functionability. Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 38 Nurses Can … … become familiar with a variety of ethical frameworks for decision making. … help the patient and family access needed information to make informed decisions. … help educate the public on health care issues. … participate in the development of institutional policies and procedures related to disability. … take a position on an ethical issue. … work to influence government policies and laws. Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 39 Chapter 23 Rural and Migrant Health Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. Rural Populations The largest rural population in history of United States is now. 75% of counties are classified as rural; they contain only 20% of the U.S. population Number/size of rural counties are highest … ➢ ➢ ➢ in the South (35%) in the Midwest and West (23%) in the Northeast (19%) Census data ➢ ➢ ➢ 20% of nation’s children under 18 15% of nation’s elderly More than 50% of nation’s poor Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 2 Rural Populations (Cont.) Economic base is shifting ➢ ➢ ➢ Agriculture is the “food and fiber system” All aspects of agriculture (core materials to wholesale and retail and food service sectors) are included Poverty in rural areas greater than in urban areas Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 3 Rural Populations (Cont.) Poverty continues to be greater in rural America than in urban areas. Aging-in-place, out-migration of young adults, and immigration of older persons from metro areas. Greater diversity among residents: a country of immigrants historically and today. Health disparities exist—rural population more likely to be older, less educated, live in poverty, lack health insurance, and experience a lack of available health care providers and access to health care Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 4 Health Disparities Among Rural Americans Only 10% of U.S. physicians practice in rural areas Ratio of physicians in rural population is 36:100,000 (nearly double in urban settings) More often assess their health as fair or poor More disability days resulting from acute conditions More negative health behaviors (untreated mental illness, obesity, alcohol, tobacco, and drug use) that contribute to excess deaths and chronic disease and disability rates Higher number of unintentional injuries Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 5 Defining Rural Populations Population size ➢ Rural = towns with population of less than 2500 or in open country [farm/nonfarm] Density ➢ ➢ Rural = fewer than 45 persons per square mile Frontier = less than 6 people per square mile Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 6 Defining Rural Populations (Cont.) The Rural-Urban Continuum uses population and adjacency to metropolitan areas ➢ Core Based Statistical Areas (CBSAs) • Metropolitan areas = county with at least one urbanized area of 50,000 or more people • Micropolitan area = area contains a cluster of 10,000 to 50,000 persons • Outside CBSAs = noncare areas Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 7 Describing Rural Health and Populations Differ in complex geographical, social, and economic areas Disparities include key indicators of health: ➢ Employment ➢ Income ➢ Education ➢ Health insurance ➢ Mortality ➢ Morbidity ➢ Access to care Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 8 Rural Health Disparities: Context and Composition Context: characteristics of places of residence ➢ Geography, environment, political, social, and economic institutions Composition: collective health effects that result from a concentration of persons with certain characteristics ➢ Age, education, income, ethnicity, and health behaviors – Braveman (2010) Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 9 Context: Health Disparities Related to Place A downward spiral may exist: ➢ people leave → services are lost → tax base becomes insufficient → fewer services are provided → long distances to get health care → jobs become scarce and more people leave → the cycle continues Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 10 Context: Health Disparities Related to Place (Cont.) Access to health care (#1 priority) Fewer primary care physicians General health services lacking Health insurance coverage … ➢ Varies according to race and ethnicity; age and residence (rural or urban) ➢ Influences health patterns ➢ May create financial barriers to health care Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 11 Composition: Health Disparities Related to Persons Income and Poverty ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ One of the most important indicators of the health and wellbeing of all Americans, regardless of where they live. Regional differences—highest in the South Racial and ethnic minorities—rates among rural racial minorities two to three times higher than for rural whites Family composition—female-headed families have highest rates Children—among the poorest citizens in rural America Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 12 Composition: Health Disparities Related to Persons (Cont.) Health risk, injury, and death ➢ Risk factors ➢ Higher rates of obesity, smoking, sedentary lifestyles, alcohol use, firearms usage, suicide, vehicular accidents; lower rates of seat belt use Age, education, gender, race, ethnicity, language, and culture Education and employment Occupational health risks Perceptions of health (gender, race, ethnicity) Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 13 Agricultural Workers Accidents and injuries caused by: ➢ Environmental conditions ➢ Geographic isolation and working alone ➢ Use of agricultural machinery ➢ Delayed access to emergency or trauma care Acute and chronic illnesses: ➢ Musculoskeletal discomfort, acute and chronic respiratory conditions, hearing loss, hypertension ➢ Chemical exposure (pesticides, herbicides, etc.) ➢ Secondary conditions related to demanding farm work Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 14 Migrant and Seasonal Farm Workers (MSFW) Health Disparities ➢ ➢ Poorest health and the least access Low income and migratory status Cultural, linguistic, economic, and mobility barriers ➢ ➢ Minimal or no preventive care • Mobile clinic sites form a central link to health services Migrant Health Program (MHP) bases services on enumeration of MSFW • Migrant and Seasonal Farm Worker Enumeration Profile Study (MSFWEPS) (2000) Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 15 “Thinking Upstream” Concepts applied to Rural Health Attack community-based problems at their roots Emphasize the “doing” aspects of health Maximize the use of informal networks Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 16 Rural Health Care Delivery System Health care provider shortages ➢ ➢ ➢ Rural shortages likely to become worse Need to “grow their own” Telemedicine • Cost-effective alternative to face-to-face care • Telehealth includes telephones, fax machines, email, and remote monitoring • Telemedicine permits two-way, real-time, interactive communication between patient and provider Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 17 Rural Health Care Delivery System (Cont.) Managed care in the rural environment ➢ ➢ Possible benefits: • Potential to lower primary care costs • Improve the quality of care • Help stabilize the local rural health care system Risks • Probable high start-up and administrative costs • Volatile effect of large, urban-based, for-profit managed care companies Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 18 Community-Based Care A myriad of services provided outside the walls of an institution ➢ Home health and hospice care, occupation health programs, community mental health programs, ambulatory care services, school health programs, faith-based care, elder services (adult day care) Community participation in decisions about health care services Focus on all three levels of prevention An understanding that the hospital is no longer the exclusive health care provider Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 19 Home Care and Hospice Nurse case management and development of local resources ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ Often hospital based in rural areas Use county extension services as a bridge for outreach services Improve home care for these patients and provide support for their families A partnership between the public health nurse and county extension service could provide support, as well as information groups and caregiving classes, for the important informal provider network. Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 20 Faith Communities and Parish Nursing A strong sense of community, family life, and religious faith Integrating nursing expertise and faith-based knowledge to provide holistic care to members of congregations Involved in case management and coordination of services Collaboration with other organizations to extend limited rural community health resources Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 21 Informal Care Systems Evolve from self-reliance and self-help traits of rural residents Include people who have assumed the role of caregiver based on their individual qualities, life situations, or social roles Provide direct help, advice, or information Need to identify and combine informal services with formal systems Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 22 Rural Public Health Departments Public health nurses are often the core providers of public health services in rural areas. ➢ ➢ Collaboration of services is key—need to develop partnerships with other heath provider agencies. Environmental health, maternal and child health, and communicable disease control are the three highestpriority programs. Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 23 Rural Mental Health Care Lack of specialized mental health providers in rural areas. Most services provided by primary care providers without adequate preparation or support. Perceived stigma prevents individuals from seeking mental health services. Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 24 Emergency Services Getting patients from the place of injury to the trauma center within the “golden hour” is frequently not possible because of distance, terrain, climatic conditions, and communication methods. Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 25 Emergency Services (Cont.) Challenges faced by rural EMS systems ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ Shortage of volunteers and lower levels of training Training curricula that often do not reflect rural hazards (e.g., farm equipment trauma) Lack of guidance from physicians Lack of physician training and orientation to EMS Also contributing to difficult public access for emergency care: • Low population density • Large, isolated, or inaccessible areas • Sever weather • Poor roads • Lower density of telephone/communication methods Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 26 Emergency Preparedness in Rural Communities Challenges in rural areas: ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ Resource limitation • Human, financial, and social capital Separation and remoteness • Longer response times Low population density • Impacts funding Communication • Warning systems often absent or neglected in remote areas; burden on individuals Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 27 Legislation and Programs Affecting Rural Public Health Programs that augment health care facilities and services ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ Community Health Centers (CHC) program Migrant Health Clinic (MHC) program and the Migrant Health Program (MHP) Medicare’s Rural Hospital Flexibility (RHF) grant program Primary care cooperative agreements Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 28 Rural Community Health Nursing “CH nursing along the rural continuum” Nonmetropolitan Areas Metropolitan Areas Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 29 Rural Nursing … … is the practice of professional nursing within the physical and sociocultural context of sparsely populated communities. It involves the continual interaction of the rural environment, the nurse, and his or her practice. Rural nursing is the diagnosis and treatment of a diversified population of people of all ages and a variety of human responses to actual (or potential) occupational hazards or actual or potential health problems existent in maternity, pediatric, medical/surgical and emergency nursing in a given rural area. –– Bigbee (1993), Lee & Winters (2004), Rosentahl (2005), Williams et al. (2012) Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 30 Characteristics of Rural Nursing Should rural nursing practice be designated as a specialty or subspecialty area because of factors such as isolation, scarce resources, and the need for a wide range of practice skills that must be adapted to social and economic structures? Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 31 Characteristics of Rural Nursing (Cont.) Positive aspects ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ Ability to provide holistic care Know everyone well Develop close relationships with the community and with coworkers Enjoy rural lifestyle Autonomy and professional status Being valued by the agency and community Negative aspects ➢ Professional isolation Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 32 The newcomer practices nursing in a rural setting, unlike the more experienced nurse, who practices rural nursing. Somewhere between these extremes lies the transitional period of events and conditions through which each nurse passes at her or his own pace. It is within this time zone that nurses experience rural reality and move toward becoming professionals who understand that having gone rural, they are not less than they were, but rather, they are more than they expected to be. Some may be conscious of the transition, and others may not, but in the end, a few will say, “I am a rural nurse.” – Scharff (1998, p. 38) Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 33 Rural Health Research Research agendas must address: ➢ The capacity of rural public health to manage improvements in health ➢ Information technology capacity in rural communities ➢ Developing and monitoring performance standards in rural public health ➢ Developing leadership and public health workforce capacity within rural public health ➢ Interaction and integration of community health systems, managed care, and public health in rural America – Berkowitz, Ivory, & Morris (2002) Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 34 Capacity of Rural Public Health to Manage Improvements in Health Healthy People 2020 objectives and intervention strategies Information Technology in Rural Communities ➢ ➢ ➢ ➢ EHR and reimbursement Preparedness strengthens infrastructure Continuing education and advanced education Telehealth impact on public health • Skills via distance learning? • Costs and infrastructure of IT? • Gaps in epidemiology and surveillance capacity? Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 35 Performance Standards in Rural Public Health National Public Health Performance Standards Program (NPHPSP) describe an optimal level of performance by public health systems regardless of location. Used to improve collaborations among key public health partners, educate participants about public health, strengthen the network of public health partners, identify strengths and weaknesses, and provide benchmarks for public health practice improvements Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 36 Leadership and Workforce Capacity for Rural Public Health IOM report (2003)—preparing public health workforce for 21st century CDC Public Health Improvement Initiative (2012)—accreditation support Medicaid impact on interaction and integration of community health systems, managed care, and public health New models of health care delivery for rural and frontier areas being tested Copyright © 2015, 2011, 2007, 2001, 1997, 1993 by Saunders, an imprint of Elsevier Inc. 37
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