Culture Shock Blog Entry

Seventh Edition Intercultural Communication 2 In loving memory of Becket, and dedicated to Macduff, Midas, and

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Ellie. 3 Sara Miller McCune founded SAGE Publishing in 1965 to support the dissemination of usable knowledge and educate a global community. SAGE publishes more than 1000 journals and over 800 new books each year, spanning a wide range of subject areas. Our growing selection of library products includes archives, data, case studies and video. SAGE remains majority owned by our founder and after her lifetime will become owned by a charitable trust that secures the company’s continued independence. Los Angeles | London | New Delhi | Singapore | Washington DC | Melbourne 4 Seventh Edition Intercultural Communication A Contextual Approach James W. Neuliep St. Norbert College Los Angeles London New Delhi Singapore Washington DC Melbourne 5 Copyright © 2018 by SAGE Publications, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. FOR INFORMATION: SAGE Publications, Ltd. 2455 Teller Road Thousand Oaks, California 91320 E-mail: order@sagepub.com SAGE Publications Ltd. 1 Oliver’s Yard 55 City Road London, EC1Y 1SP United Kingdom SAGE Publications India Pvt. Ltd. B 1/I 1 Mohan Cooperative Industrial Area Mathura Road, New Delhi 110 044 India SAGE Publications Asia-Pacific Pte. Ltd. 3 Church Street #10–04 Samsung Hub 6 Singapore 049483 Acquisitions Editor: Karen Omer Development Editor: Anna Villarruel eLearning Editor: Chelsey Postal Editorial Assistant: Sarah Dillard Production Editor: Jane Haenel Copy Editor: Amy Harris Typesetter: Hurix Systems Pvt. Ltd. Proofreader: Talia Greenberg Indexer: Nancy Fulton Cover Designer: Candice Harman Marketing Manager: Amy Lammers Printed in the United States of America Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Neuliep, James William, 1957– author. Title: Intercultural communication : a contextual approach / James W. Neuliep, St. Norbert College. Description: 7th Edition. | Thousand Oaks, CA : Sage, 2017. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2016036981 | ISBN 9781506315133 (pbk. : alk. paper) Subjects: LCSH: Intercultural communication. | Culture. Classification: LCC HM1211 .N48 2017 | DDC 303.48/2—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016036981 This book is printed on acid-free paper. 17 18 19 20 21 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 7 Brief Contents Preface A Note on Culture and Language Chapter 1 • The Necessity of Intercultural Communication Chapter 2 • The Cultural Context Chapter 3 • The Microcultural Context Chapter 4 • The Environmental Context Chapter 5 • The Perceptual Context Chapter 6 • The Sociorelational Context Chapter 7 • The Verbal Code Chapter 8 • The Nonverbal Code Chapter 9 • Developing Intercultural Relationships Chapter 10 • Intercultural Conflict Chapter 11 • Intercultural Communication in Business, Health Care, and Educational Settings Chapter 12 • Acculturation, Culture Shock, and Intercultural Competence Glossary Notes Index 8 Detailed Contents Preface A Note on Culture and Language Chapter 1: The Necessity of Intercultural Communication The Need for Intercultural Communication Benefits of Intercultural Communication Healthy Communities Increased Commerce Reduced Conflict Personal Growth Through Tolerance Diversity in the United States Human Communication The Nature of Human Communication Human Communication Apprehension The Nature of Culture Accumulated Pattern of Values, Beliefs, and Behaviors An Identifiable Group of People With a Common History Verbal and Nonverbal Symbol Systems Microcultural Groups The Study of Intercultural Communication A Contextual Model of Intercultural Communication Intercultural Communication and Uncertainty Intercultural Communication Apprehension Fundamental Assumptions About Intercultural Communication The Ethics of Intercultural Communication The Five Approaches to Determining Which Behaviors Are Ethical The Utilitarian Approach The Rights Approach The Fairness or Social Justice Approach The Common Good Approach The Virtues Approach The Ethical Principles of Eastern Cultures Confucianism Hinduism The Goal: Intercultural Communication Competence 9 An Integrated Model and Measure of Intercultural Communication Competence Chapter Summary Discussion Questions Developing Intercultural Communication Competence Key Terms Chapter 2: The Cultural Context Individualism–Collectivism Individualism Collectivism Individualism Versus Collectivism? So Who’s an Individualist, and Who’s a Collectivist? Patterns of Individualism and Collectivism Across the United States Communication Consequences of Individualism– Collectivism Vertical and Horizontal Individualism and Collectivism The Pancultural Self High- and Low-Context Communication Characteristics of High- and Low-Context Cultures Communication Consequences of Low- and High-Context Cultural Orientations Value Orientations Schwartz Theory of Basic Values Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck’s Value Orientations The Self The Family Society Human Nature Nature The Supernatural Power Distance Measuring Power Distance Communication and Power Distance Uncertainty Avoidance A Theory of Uncertainty Orientation Chapter Summary Discussion Questions Ethical Considerations Within the Cultural Context Developing Intercultural Communication Competence 10 Key Terms Chapter 3: The Microcultural Context Microcultural Group Status Muted Microcultural Groups Microcultures in the United States Hispanics/Latinos So Who Is Hispanic/Latino? Cultural Values and Communication of Hispanics/Latinos Stereotypes of Hispanics/Latinos Black Americans Black American Communication Stereotypes of Black Americans Asian Americans Asian American Values Asian American Values and Communication Styles Stereotypes of Asian Americans: The Model Minority Normative Communication Styles of Black Americans, Asian Americans, and Hispanics/Latinos Native Americans/American Indians Communication Patterns of Native Americans/American Indians Stereotypes of Native Americans/American Indians Arab Americans Communication Patterns of Arab Americans Stereotypes of Arab Americans Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer/Questioning Microcultural Groups Gayspeak: Communication of the LGBTQ Microculture Chapter Summary Discussion Questions Ethical Issues and Microcultures Developing Intercultural Communication Competence Key Terms Chapter 4: The Environmental Context Environments and Information Load Culture and the Natural Environment 11 Worldviews of the Natural Environment Natural Disasters as Cultural and Social Events The Built Environment Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Housing Japanese Housing American Navajo Housing Muslim Homes Privacy Perceptions of Privacy in the United States Cross-Cultural Variations on Privacy Online Privacy Across Cultures Monochronic Versus Polychronic Time Orientation Consequences of Monochronic and Polychronic Orientations Chapter Summary Discussion Questions Ethics and the Environmental Context Developing Intercultural Communication Competence Key Terms Chapter 5: The Perceptual Context Culture and Cognition The Geography of Thought A Model of Human Information Processing Stage #1: Input/Sensation Cross-Cultural Differences in Sensation and Perception Stage #2: Storage/Memory Stage #3: Recall/Retrieval Cross-Cultural Differences in Memory and Retrieval Categorization and Mental Economy Stereotyping Racial and Ethnic Stereotypes U.S. Stereotypes Media Influence on Stereotypes Stereotype Content Model Why Stereotype? Stereotypes and Expectations Ethnocentrism A Contemporary Conceptualization of Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism, Intercultural Communication, and Interpersonal Perception 12 Ethnocentrism and Communication in the Workplace Ethnocentrism and Racism Chapter Summary Discussion Questions Ethics and the Perceptual Context Developing Intercultural Competence Key Terms Chapter 6: The Sociorelational Context Dimensions of Group Variability Membership and Nonmembership Groups In-Groups and Out-Groups Reference Groups Role Relationships Role Differentiation and Stratification Family Groups Hmong Korea Israel Mosuo Kenya Sex and Gender Groups Gender Stereotypes Sex and Gender Roles Across Cultures Japan India China Mexico Israel Saudi Arabia Chapter Summary Discussion Questions Ethics and the Sociorelational Context Developing Intercultural Communication Competence Key Terms Chapter 7: The Verbal Code The Relationship Between Language and Culture Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis The Structure of Human Language Sounds and Symbols Syntax and Universal Grammar Universals of Language 13 Generative Grammar The Gendering of Language: Are Languages Sexist? Elaborated and Restricted Codes Cross-Cultural Communication Styles Direct and Indirect Styles Elaborate, Exacting, and Succinct Styles Personal and Contextual Styles Instrumental and Affective Styles Gendered Language Style Across Cultures Language and Ethnic Identity Do You Speak “American”? Appalachian English Cajun English R-Less or R-Dropping Dialects California English Texas English The Midwest Accent? Chapter Summary Discussion Questions Ethics and the Verbal Code Developing Intercultural Communication Competence Key Terms Chapter 8: The Nonverbal Code Definitions of Nonverbal Communication The Relationship Between Verbal and Nonverbal Codes Formal Versus Informal Code Systems Channels of Nonverbal Communication Kinesics Emblems and Illustrators Affect Displays: Facial Expressions of Emotion Cross-Racial Recognition of Faces Regulators Oculesics Paralanguage Proxemics Haptics Olfactics Physical Appearance and Dress Chronemics Nonverbal Communication and Dimensions of Cultural Variability 14 Individualism–Collectivism Power Distance High and Low Context Nonverbal Expectancy Violations Theory Cultural Contexts and Nonverbal Expectancies Chapter Summary Discussion Questions Ethics and the Nonverbal Code Developing Intercultural Communication Competence Key Terms Chapter 9: Developing Intercultural Relationships Communication and Uncertainty Anxiety/Uncertainty Management Theory of Effective Communication Uncertainty Reduction and Intercultural Communication Apprehension Assessing Sociocommunicative Orientation/Style Empathy and Similarity in Relationship Development Empathy Similarity Perceptions of Relational Intimacy Across Cultures Eastern and Western Cultures and Relationships Interethnic and Interracial Relationships and Marriages Intercultural Relational Maintenance The Internet as Relational Maintenance Japan India Africa Mexico Mate Selection and Desirability Across Cultures Arranged Marriages Marital Dissolution and Divorce Across Cultures Chapter Summary Discussion Questions Ethics and Intercultural Relationships Developing Intercultural Communication Competence Key Terms Chapter 10: Intercultural Conflict Definition of Intercultural Conflict Kim’s Model of Intercultural Conflict A Culture-Based Social Ecological Conflict Model 15 Intercultural Dialogue, Conflict Resolution, and a Culture of Peace The Concept of Face, Facework, and Communication Conflict Styles Face Facework Conflict Communication Styles The Intercultural Conflict Style Inventory Individualistic and Collectivistic Approaches to Conflict Conflict Resolution in High- Versus Low-Context Cultures Resolving Cross-Cultural Conflict: A Contingency Model Chapter Summary Discussion Questions Ethics and Intercultural Conflict Developing Intercultural Communication Competence Key Terms Chapter 11: Intercultural Communication in Business, Health Care, and Educational Settings Intercultural Management Management Practices Across Cultures Japanese Management Practices German Management Practices Mexican Management Practices Chinese Management Practices Culture, Intercultural Communication, and Health Care Lay Theories of Illness Health Care and Resources Across Cultures Health Communication Provider–Patient Communication Intercultural Communication and Educational Settings Learning Styles Across Cultures Teacher Immediacy in the Classroom and Across Cultures Some Recommendations for the Intercultural Classroom Chapter Summary Discussion Questions Ethical Considerations Developing Intercultural Communication Competence Key Terms Chapter 12: Acculturation, Culture Shock, and Intercultural 16 Competence Acculturation Acculturative Stress A Model of Acculturation Modes of Acculturation Acculturation in the United States Culture Shock W-Curve Models of Reentry Culture Shock Strategies for Managing Culture Shock Indicators of Success in the Intercultural Context Intercultural Communication Competence A Model of Intercultural Competence The Knowledge Component The Affective Component The Psychomotor Component Situational Features Chapter Summary Discussion Questions Ethical Considerations: Some Final Thoughts on Developing Intercultural Competence Key Terms Glossary Notes Index 17 Preface Intercultural Communication: A Contextual Approach (Seventh Edition) is designed for undergraduate students taking their first course in intercultural communication. The purpose of the book is to introduce students to the fundamental topics, theories, concepts, and themes at the center of the study of intercultural communication. Organization The overall organizational scheme of the book is based on a contextual model of intercultural communication. The model is based on the idea that, whenever people from different cultures come together and exchange verbal and nonverbal messages, they do so within a variety of contexts, including a cultural, microcultural, environmental, sociorelational, and perceptual context. The model is conceptually and graphically consistent and is presented in Chapter 1. The organizational scheme of the Seventh Edition is consistent with the earlier editions, but many substantive revisions have been incorporated. The role of modern technology and its impact on intercultural communication has also been added to many chapters. Each chapter has been revised and updated to include the most recent research in the field. Features The Seventh Edition contains many returning features that have been updated to enhance and improve upon the existing content. Student Voices Across Cultures: A continuing and exciting feature of this edition is Student Voices Across Cultures. Each chapter includes at least one essay from a student applying a concept from that chapter to his or her personal experiences. Students from China, Saudi Arabia, the Faroe Islands, Mexico, Germany, Colombia, Sweden, and the United States have contributed to this feature. Many of the U.S. students discuss their study-abroad experiences; these essays provide the reader with real-life applications of theoretical 18 concepts. Self-Assessments: Most chapters contain a number of self-assessment instruments that measure concepts such as intercultural communication, apprehension, ethnocentrism, individualism-collectivism, conflict-style preferences, and intercultural competence. These are designed to help students learn about themselves as they learn about important concepts in intercultural communication. Intercultural Conversations: As in the earlier editions, most of the chapters in this newly revised edition of the book contain intercultural conversations. These hypothetical scripts illustrate how the various concepts discussed in the chapters manifest in human interactions. Ethics Questions: At the close of each chapter, students are asked to consider ethical issues related to the concepts discussed in the particular chapter. These questions encourage students to think about how they might respond and react ethically to intercultural situations. Developing Intercultural Communication Competence: Also new to this edition, at the close of each chapter is a feature titled Developing Intercultural Communication Competence, where students are challenged to adapt their way of thinking and their communication. The goal of this feature is tied to the goal of this book, which is to help students become competent intercultural communicators. Each chapter also includes a set of learning objectives, a chapter summary, discussion questions, key terms, and an extensive reference list. New to This Edition Each chapter has been thoroughly updated to include new developments in scholarship. Highlights to the revision include the following: 19 Chapter 1 alerts students to the importance and necessity of intercultural communication in the 21st century. An argument presented here is that modern technology has decentralized information. This means that billions of people across the planet now have access to information that was not available to them only a few years ago. Such information empowers them. In addition, the most current data from the U.S. Census Bureau are reviewed, which point to the growing diversity of the U.S. population. The chapter continues with extended discussions about the nature of human communication and culture. While reading Chapter 1, students can complete and score the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension, the Generalized Ethnocentrism Scale, and the Personal Report of Intercultural Communication Apprehension. The chapter continues with a delineation of five fundamental assumptions of intercultural communication. At the close of Chapter 1, and new to the chapter, is an introduction to intercultural communication competence. Here, students can complete the Intercultural Communication Competence Scale. The new Student Voices Across Cultures profile in this chapter presents a young woman’s experiences with cultural differences while studying abroad in Italy. In Chapter 2, culture is defined as an accumulated pattern of values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by an identifiable group of people with a common history and verbal and nonverbal code system. The outer circle of the contextual model of intercultural communication represents the cultural context. This is the largest circle because culture permeates every aspect of the communicative exchange, even the physical geography. All communicative exchanges between persons occur within some cultural context. The cultural context is the focus of Chapter 2. Well-recognized topics such as individualism–collectivism, high–low context, weak–strong uncertainty avoidance, value orientations, and small–large power distance are discussed. Self-report scales measuring each of these topics are included in the chapter, including a scale that measures vertical and horizontal individualism and collectivism. Although most textbooks present individualism and collectivism as opposite dimensions of cultural variability, they are not mutually exclusive; that is, they can coexist within a person of any culture. However, there is an argument that both individualistic and collectivistic ideals serve the self, or are pancultural. The discussion of the pancultural self has been updated and extended. Two Student Voices Across Cultures profiles are included in this chapter: one from a Chinese student who discusses collectivism in China, and the other from a Saudi Arabian student who explains power distance in his family. 20 The focus of Chapter 3 is the microcultural context. Within most cultures are groups of people that differ in some significant way from the general macroculture. These groups are sometimes called minorities, subcultures, or co-cultures. In this book, the term microculture is used to refer to those identifiable groups of people that share a set of values, beliefs, and behaviors and possess a common history and verbal and nonverbal symbol system that is similar to, but systematically varies from, the larger, often dominant cultural milieu. Microcultures can be different from the larger culture in a variety of ways—most often because of race, ethnicity, language, religion, or even behavioral practices. Such microcultures develop their own language for communicating outside the dominant or majority culture’s context or value system. The revised Chapter 3 includes a discussion of four U.S. microcultures: Hispanics/Latinos, Black Americans, Asian Americans, and LGBTQ (lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, and queer) groups. New to this chapter is a discussion of a fifth microculture, Arab Americans. Included in this chapter is a Student Voices Across Cultures profile written by a gay college professor, who discusses personal examples of being silenced as a member of a microculture. Chapter 4 focuses on the environmental context. Whereas culture prescribes the overall rules for communication, the environmental context prescribes when and what specific rules apply. The environmental context includes the physical geography, architecture, landscape design, housing, perceptions of privacy, time orientation, and even climate of a particular culture. A discussion of the Japanese phenomenon of microhomes, or ultra-small homes, is included in this chapter. New to this chapter is a discussion of Muslim homes. These environmental factors play a key role in how people communicate. In this chapter, students are given the opportunity to assess their privacy preferences and monochronic/polychronic time orientations. Chapter 4 includes coverage of the nature of privacy in the United States, with a special focus on the perceptions of privacy among U.S. students. The section on online privacy has been completely revised and updated and now includes the results of an EMC Corporation (EMC2) survey of over 15,000 respondents in 15 countries that studied perceptions and attitudes about data privacy and the willingness to trade privacy for convenience and benefits online. Also included is a proposed set of criteria that online services should address in order to provide users from diverse backgrounds and cultures reasonable online privacy protections. A discussion of natural disasters as cultural and social events is included. Although natural disasters are triggered by 21 natural events (e.g., tsunamis, earthquakes, floods, etc.), the effects of such disasters vary considerably across cultures because they take place within particular social and cultural systems of laws and values. In the Student Voices Across Cultures profile included in this chapter, a young man from Germany discusses his country’s monochronic time orientation. A chart summarizing characteristics of monochronic and polychronic time orientations has been added. Chapter 5 focuses on the perceptual contexts of the interactants and includes a simplified model of human information processing. The perceptual context refers to the individual characteristics of the interactants, including their cognitions, attitudes, dispositions, and motivations. How an individual gathers, stores, and retrieves information is uniquely human but also culturally influenced. An individual’s attitudes about others, including stereotypes, are culturally influenced. Also included in Chapter 5 is a discussion of U.S. racism as a parallel to ethnocentrism. The geography of thought—that is, how geographical differences among cultures have a dramatic influence on how humans in those distinct geographical areas perceive the world—is discussed. Here, the focus is on how Asians (Eastern cultures) and Westerners think differently, and why. Another feature of this chapter is a fascinating discussion of the Stereotype Content Model, which explains how and why people stereotype and the essential content of those stereotypes. This model is applicable across cultures. Included in this chapter is a discussion of media’s influence on stereotypes, including an application of Gerbner’s cultivation theory. The chapter applies cultivation theory to three microcultural groups in the United States, examining how they are depicted on television and the resulting stereotypes associated with them. Three specific groups studied are Black Americans, Hispanics/Latinos, and Asian Americans. A look at how U.S. citizens are stereotyped is also included here. In one of the Student Voices Across Cultures profiles in this chapter, a young woman who has won beauty pageants discusses the longheld stereotypes applied to beauty pageant contestants. In another profile, a student from the United States discusses being stereotyped while studying abroad in Ecuador. The sociorelational context is the focus of Chapter 6. Whenever two people come together and interact, they establish some sort of social relationship based on their group memberships. Within such relationships, each person assumes a role. Roles prescribe with whom, about what, and how individuals communicate. Roles vary from culture to culture. For 22 example, in just about every culture, there are student and teacher role relationships, but how student–teacher roles are defined varies significantly from culture to culture. For example, the U.S. American definition of student varies significantly from the Japanese definition of student. What it means to be a mother or father varies considerably from one culture to another as well. One’s roles prescribe the types of verbal and nonverbal symbols exchanged. Chapter 6 contains a discussion of matriarchy and patriarchy and an updated discussion of family groups that now includes families in Kenya. A new section on sex roles in Saudi Arabia has been added. In the Student Voices Across Cultures profile in this chapter, a young woman from Saudi Arabia discusses sex roles in her family and culture. A new Student Voices Across Cultures has been included where a young woman from the United States discusses how she and her friends were addressed in Italy. Chapter 7 focuses on the verbal code and human language. Throughout much of the book, cultural differences are highlighted. In Chapter 7, however, language is characterized as essentially human rather than cultural. Based on the ideas of Noam Chomsky and other contemporary linguists, Chapter 7 points out that, regardless of culture, people are born with the capacity for language. Humans are born with universal grammar and, through culture, are exposed to a subset that constitutes their particular culture’s language (e.g., English, French, and so on). The language of a particular culture is simply a subset of universal language. To be sure, culture certainly affects how we use language. Thus, Chapter 7 outlines several styles of language and how they vary across cultures. Along with a new set of chapter objectives, a new discussion of the gendering of language has been included, along with a comparison of sex differences in verbal language in Japan, China, and India. A discussion of uniquely American accents, including a section addressing whether or not such a thing as a Midwestern accent exists, closes the chapter. In this chapter’s Student Voices Across Cultures profile, a student from China explains how her native language emphasizes nonverbal tones that dramatically change the meanings of words. Chapter 8 focuses on the nonverbal code. After a discussion of the relationship between verbal and nonverbal codes, eight channels of nonverbal communication are discussed: kinesics, paralanguage, occulesics, proxemics, haptics, olfactics, physical appearance/dress, and chronemics. In the section on kinesics, the use of gestures and an extended discussion of affect displays across cultures are presented. In the coverage 23 of paralanguage, cultural uses of silence, accents, and tonal languages are discussed. A feature of this chapter is a discussion of the cross-cultural differences in eye contact (i.e., occulesics). Cultural variations of space are covered in the section on proxemics. High- and low-contact cultures are the focus of the section on haptics. An extended discussion of olfactics across cultures is presented, and students can assess their perception of smell by completing the Personal Report of Olfactic Perception and Sensitivity. A discussion of physical appearance and dress looks at cultural variations in India and Japan, among other cultures. The discussion of chronemics reviews Edward T. Hall’s monochronic/polychronic distinction, in addition to the use of calendars across cultures. Finally, the chapter closes with a cross-cultural application of nonverbal expectancy violations theory. In one of this chapter’s Student Voices Across Cultures essays, a U.S. student discusses her trip to Zambia, Africa, and her experience with haptics/touch. Another Student Voices Across Cultures essay, written by a student from Saudi Arabia, describes nonverbal behavior in his country. Another Student Voices Across Cultures essay, written by a U.S. student, describes the nonverbal behavior of people in England, especially in mass transit contexts. Finally, in a new Student Voices Across Cultures essay, a U.S. student studying abroad in Japan describes a fascinating experience with proxemics. Chapter 9 discusses the development of intercultural relationships. This chapter focuses on five factors that affect relationships: uncertainty reduction, intercultural communication apprehension, sociocommunicative style, empathy, and similarity. Each factor is discussed, with an emphasis on intercultural relationships. The discussion of anxiety/uncertainty management theory has been completely revised, with the addition of new graphics. A substantially revised and updated section on the Internet and relational maintenance, including how Facebook is used in several different cultures, has been added. The chapter also presents a discussion of relationship differences between Eastern and Western cultures. A much revised section on interethnic and interracial relationships and marriages is included, and the discussion of polygyny and interracial marriages is completely updated. A much revised section on the Internet as relational maintenance has been included where Japan, India, Africa, and Mexico are highlighted. Japan and India were profiled in the Sixth Edition, but these sections have been completely revised with all new (and current) sources. The sections on Africa and Mexico are new. The section on arranged marriages is updated, and current research has been added to the section on divorce across cultures. Also included is a discussion of the research 24 associated with lesbian and gay relational maintenance. In this chapter, students can complete the Sociocommunicative Orientation/Style and Factors in Choosing a Mate instruments and compare their preferences with other cultures. In the two Student Voices Across Cultures profiles, a young man from Saudi Arabia discusses marriage in his country, and a young woman explains relationship building in Colombia. Chapter 10, which focuses on intercultural conflict, has been expanded. The chapter begins with a definition of intercultural conflict and outlines three levels of conflict as described by Young Kim’s model. The chapter includes two models of conflict, including John Oetzel and Stella TingToomey’s revised Culture-Based Social Ecological Model of Conflict and Benjamin Broome’s Model of Building a Culture of Peace. Then, an example of intercultural conflict is applied to all three models. Through these three applications, students can see how the models might work in practice. The chapter also includes an extended discussion of facenegotiation theory, where students can assess their degree of self-face, other-face, and mutual-face concerns after exposure to a conflict situation. The chapter also includes discussions of facework and facework strategies and of the Intercultural Conflict Style Inventory. This inventory is a theoretical model and assessment tool used by professional mediators and trainers to diagnose and manage intercultural conflicts. The chapter includes a discussion of conflict communication styles and how culture affects one’s preference for conflict styles. A major section at the end of the chapter on Kohls and Buller’s Contingency Model of Cross Cultural Conflict has been included. Following that, four hypothetical conflict scenarios have been included that apply the model. In the Student Voices Across Cultures profile, a young man from Mexico describes how people in his culture approach interpersonal conflict. In a new Student Voices Across Cultures profile, a U.S. student discusses how she manages conflict with her international exchange student friends. Chapter 11 has also been significantly revised. The section on management practices across cultures has been updated. Each section on the specific cultures profiled (i.e., Japan, Germany, Mexico, and China) has been revised to reflect the most current statistics available. Note that each of these four sections begins with a brief overview of their economies. These have all been updated. Also included is an interesting discussion of the phenomenon of the salaryman in Japan. The Student Voices Across Cultures essay was written by a student from Sweden who discusses business practices in his country. The section on health care has 25 been updated. Table 11.3 has been completely updated. Several current studies and references have been added to the section on provider–patient communication. The Student Voices Across Cultures essay was written by a student from the Faroe Islands, where health care is handled much differently than in the United States. Another new section on intercultural communication in educational settings, containing a section on learning styles across cultures and a graphic of a learning style model, a section on teacher immediacy across cultures, and a series of pedagogical recommendations for teachers in intercultural classrooms, has been added. Chapter 12 presents a discussion of acculturation, culture shock, and intercultural competence. The central theme of this chapter is the practical aspect of traveling or moving to a new culture. A model of assimilation/acculturation is presented, along with factors that influence the acculturation process, such as perceived similarity and host culture attitudes. A four-stage, U-curve model of culture shock is outlined. In addition, the chapter includes a discussion of the W-curve model of reentry culture shock. The chapter includes a variety of self-report inventories to help students prepare for a journey abroad. It closes with a model of intercultural competence as four interdependent components—knowledge, affective, psychomotor, and situational features. A feature of this chapter is an extended discussion of Kim Zapf’s Culture Shock Scale, including a checklist of additional culture shock symptoms. The first Student Voices Across Cultures profile features a young woman’s experiences with culture shock during her semester in Spain. A Student Voices Across Cultures profile based on reentry shock (the W-curve model) is included. This will nicely complement the earlier essay on culture shock. Many of my students comment that coming back to the United States after a semester abroad (i.e., reentry shock) is more difficult than actually traveling abroad (i.e., culture shock). Of particular interest is a new Student Voices Across Cultures profile from a young man who spent a year-long tour of duty in Afghanistan. In his profile, he discusses how the model of culture shock presented in the chapter does not apply to his overseas experience in a war zone. Digital Resources SAGE edge offers a robust online environment you can access anytime, anywhere, and features an impressive array of free tools and resources to keep you on the cutting edge of your learning experience. Visit the open26 access SAGE edge website at edge.sagepub.com/neuliep7e. SAGE edge for Instructors supports your teaching by making it easy to integrate quality content and create a rich learning environment for students. Test banks provide a diverse range of pre-written options as well as the opportunity to edit any question and/or insert your own personalized questions to effectively assess students’ progress and understanding. Sample course syllabi for semester and quarter courses provide suggested models for structuring your courses. Editable, chapter-specific PowerPoint® slides offer complete flexibility for creating a multimedia presentation for your course. EXCLUSIVE! Access to full-text SAGE journal articles that have been carefully selected to support and expand on the concepts presented in each chapter. Multimedia content appeals to students with different learning styles. Lecture notes summarize key concepts by chapter to help you prepare for lectures and class discussions. SAGE edge for Students provides a personalized approach to help you accomplish your coursework goals in an easy-to-use learning environment. Mobile-friendly eFlashcards strengthen your understanding of key terms and concepts. Mobile-friendly practice quizzes allow you to independently assess your mastery of course material. An online action plan allows you to track your progress through the course and materials and to individualize your learning experience. Learning objectives reinforce the most important material. Multimedia web links make it easy to mine Internet resources, further explore topics, and answer critical thinking questions. EXCLUSIVE! Access to full-text SAGE journal articles that have been carefully chosen to support and expand on the concepts presented in each chapter. Acknowledgments A number of people have been instrumental in the revision of this book. I 27 am so very fortunate to work with the professionals at SAGE Publishing. That only my name appears on the cover of this book is misleading. Many of my editorial and production staff at SAGE were new to this edition, and they deserve much of the credit for what is good in this book. They are the very best and have been incredibly helpful and supportive. I wish to express my gratitude publicly. A genuine and sincere thanks goes to my new acquisitions editor, Karen Omer, who enthusiastically stepped into the new position and has been incredibly helpful. Thanks, Karen. I hope we continue to work together for a long time. Karen has put up with a lot from me, and she deserves a special commendation for her persistence and patience. Anna Villarruel is my new developmental editor. Wow … thank you so much, Anna, for your patience, counsel, guidance, and friendship. You are wonderful. My new eLearning Editor is Chelsey Postal. Thank you so much, Chelsey, for your expertise and patience and for tolerating my lack of eLearning technology. And thanks especially for tolerating my fifth-grader sense of humor. You are the best! My new editorial assistant is Sarah Dillard. Thanks, Sarah, for your hard work in reviewing the book and paying close attention to the details. A special thanks to my production manager, Jane Haenel, who did so much to make the book look so good. Like the others, Jane has been so helpful and tolerant of me. My new copy editor is Amy Harris. Thanks, Amy, for your attention to detail, very quick turn-around time, and humor. Much appreciated. Thanks also to the following reviewers of the book, whose many suggestions were incorporated into the revision. I very much appreciate their constructive comments and recommendations: Shirley Acquah, Westfield State University Sandra Alspach, Ferris State University Nader H. Chaaban, George Mason University Shirley A. Fessel, Park University Meredith Marko Harrigan, SUNY Genesco Jason Hough, Hartnell College Kumi Ishii, Western Kentucky University Pratibha Kumar, Mount St. Mary’s University Marilyn J. Matelski, Boston College Christine L. North, Ohio Northern University Peter Oehlkers, Salem State University Joshua Daniel Phillips, Penn State Brandywine Sudeshna Roy, Stephen F. Austin State University Otilia Salmón, University of North Florida David Schreindl, Dickinson State University 28 Bin Zhang, South Puget Sound Community College As I continue into my fourth decade of teaching at the collegiate level, a genuine and sincere thank you goes to my students at St. Norbert College, from whom I have learned a great deal about culture and so much more about life. A special thanks to the new Student Voices Across Cultures contributors, including Joe Lancelle, Abbie Hausman, Corie Stingl, Hanna Klecka, and Dex Anschutz. One of the greatest pleasures of my life is the relationships I have initiated and maintained with my students. —J.W.N. 29 A Note on Culture and Language Writing a book about intercultural communication is fraught with issues related to language and cultural identity. Cultures are not static. Cultures are fluid, in flux, transforming, and evolving—some slowly, some quickly. As you read through this book, please know that a very conscious attempt has been made to be inclusive and nonjudgmental when describing cultural groups and cultural traditions. Language, too, is fluid and evolving. The language spoken today is not the language of our ancestors. And so the language we use to describe cultures can sometimes unintentionally mischaracterize the culture. That’s the nature of writing about intercultural communication. A very conscious attempt has been made to use language throughout this book that is sensitive to these issues and, in so doing, to recognize the evolving historical, social, and political dimensions across the globe and the resulting cultural transformations, particularly as they relate to race, ethnicity, and sex and gender issues. The following terms are used in the seventh edition, although regional designations and nationalities are used when they are more accurate and specific: Arab American is used to refer to Americans of Arab descent. Arab describes Arabic-speaking people from countries in the Middle East and North Africa with significant Arabic-speaking populations. Muslim refers to people around the world who practice Islam. African American or Black American is used, whichever is more true to the study being cited. If the person or group is not American, then African or Black (whichever is most accurate) is used. American Indian is used to refer to groups or individuals who are members or descendants of indigenous peoples of North America. When referring to groups including Hawaiians and Samoans, the broader term Native American is used. The name of a specific tribe of the individual or group is used whenever possible. Asian American is used for U.S. citizens of Asian descent. Asian is used to describe things or people of or from Asia. Hispanic/Latino is used at first reference; for subsequent references, Hispanic or Latino may be used as a collective noun depending on the study being cited. White or Caucasian is used to refer to citizens of the United States 30 who are of European ancestry. I am grateful to all the scholars from different walks of life who have reviewed the seventh edition of Intercultural Communication: A Contextual Approach and to my colleagues in history, political science, modern foreign languages, and sociology with whom I’ve had extensive conversations about how to use the “right” terminology. To be sure, there is no consensus among them. The “correct” terminology depends upon whom you ask. 31 1 The Necessity of Intercultural Communication © iStockphoto.com/SilviaJansen Learning Objectives 1. 2. 3. 4. Describe why intercultural communication is a necessity Define and discuss the nature of communication Define and discuss the nature of culture Explain the different contexts that make up the contextual model of intercultural communication 5. Summarize the five fundamental assumptions of intercultural communication 6. Identify and discuss the five academic approaches used in determining ethical behavior 7. Describe why intercultural communication competence is a necessity In 1804, the number of people on planet Earth was 1 billion. In 1927, 123 years later, it was 2 billion. By 1960, 33 years later, it was 3 billion. By 1974, 14 years later, it was 4 billion. Currently, there are over 7 billion (i.e., 7,313,000,000) people on planet Earth. One human is born every 8 seconds 32 and dies every 11 seconds, for a net gain of one person every 15 seconds. Of the 7.3 billion people on the planet, about 1.4 billion, or nearly 20%, are Chinese, and 1.3 billion, just over 17%, are East Indian. Approximately 323 million, or about 4.5%, reside in the United States; around 3.5% are Indonesian; and just under 3% are Brazilian. Over the past 200 years, the growth rate, distribution, and density of the world’s population have not been spread equally. Certain regions of the world have grown disproportionately in terms of the number of people, while other regions vary considerably in terms of population density (i.e., number of people per square mile). As seen in these statistics, China and India account for nearly 40% of the world’s population. African countries make up nearly 15% of the world’s population, while Europe constitutes about 11%.2 The purpose of the previous paragraph is to point out that the world’s population is growing disproportionately. Along with that, something else has grown disproportionately: technology and its decentralizing role in information dissemination. In 1948, the painter and writer Wyndham Lewis wrote about a “global village” in his book America and Cosmic Man. Several years later, his friend Marshall McLuhan also used the term to describe how technological advances of mass media would eventually disintegrate the natural time and space barriers inherent in human communication. McLuhan predicted that through the elimination of such barriers, people would continue to interact and live on a global scale—but one virtually transformed into a village.3 Seventeen years into the 21st century, McLuhan’s vision of a global village is no longer considered an abstract idea but a near certainty. Technological changes have made Earth a smaller planet to inhabit. The technological ability of mass media and the Internet to bring events from across the globe into our homes, businesses, and schools dramatically reduces the distance between people of different cultures and societies. Telecommunication systems, including e-mail, texting, and social networking sites such as Facebook, connect people throughout the world via satellites and fiber optics. Skype links people from across the planet in seconds. The essential effect of this technology is its decentralizing role in disseminating information across local, regional, national, and international borders. This means that billions of people across the planet now have access to information not available to them only a few years ago. Information empowers people. The ease and speed with which people of differing cultures can now communicate is stunning. In 1780—nearly 240 years ago— when John Adams, the second president of the United States, corresponded with his European counterparts in France, it would take as long as 6 months to send and receive letters, as they traveled by ship across the Atlantic Ocean. Imagine sending a text message to a friend that takes half a year to 33 arrive! Today, it takes less than a second. Moreover, the sheer frequency and quantity of messages sent is baffling compared with only a few years ago. Some sources estimate that in 2016 there were 2.6 billion e-mail users, each having about two e-mail accounts (i.e., over 5 billion e-mail accounts) worldwide. By 2019, it is estimated that number will grow to 3 billion e-mail users and nearly 6 billion accounts. In 2015, the number of e-mails sent and received per day was over 200 billion! That number is expected to grow to 250 billion per day by 2019.4 Of course, e-mail is only one of the technological advances facilitating communication across cultures. The Internet has become a dominant and powerful source of information for billions of people across the planet. Harshith Mallya, a graduate of Manipal Institute of Technology—one of the top recognized universities in India—notes that India had about 200 million Internet users in 2013 and will have over 500 million Internet users in 2017. Moreover, with the third-largest smartphone market in the world, India will have over 314 million mobile Internet users by 2017. In 2017, there will be more mobile Internet users in India than there are people in the United States. Currently, there are 3 times as many cell phone subscribers in India as there are people in the United States. In India, or anywhere else, cell phones and smartphones provide quick and easy access to information to persons in small towns and villages, where communicating with outsiders was virtually impossible only a few years ago. In India, the majority of subscribers are now outside the major cities and wealthiest states.5 And while many may think that the United States is the cell phone and Internet capital of the world, it actually ranks 72nd among 212 countries in terms of the number of cell phones per capita. The top 10 countries for number of cell phones per capita are, in order, the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, Macau, Hong Kong, Estonia, Qatar, Israel, Lithuania, Bulgaria, and Italy.6 Technology has linked the world. Many college students in the United States have a Facebook account or are at least familiar with the social networking site. But unlike e-mail or cell phones, social networking sites such as Facebook are intentionally designed to establish and maintain relationships. So initiating a relationship with someone from across the globe is much easier now than it was only a few years ago. According to its own records, as of January 2016, there were over a billion daily active Facebook users and 1.6 billion monthly active users. About 84% of Facebook daily active users live outside of the United States and Canada.7 Although these technological advances facilitate the initiation and maintenance of cross-cultural relationships, the late noted historian and Pulitzer Prize winner Arthur Schlesinger warned us that history tells an ugly story of what happens when people of diverse cultural, ethnic, religious, or 34 linguistic backgrounds converge in one place. The hostility of one group of people against another, different group of people is among the most instinctive of human drives. Xenophobia—the fear or contempt of that which is foreign or unknown, especially of strangers or those perceived as foreigners—is believed by many to be an innate biological response to intergroup competition. Indeed, Schlesinger contended that unless a common goal binds diverse people together, tribal hostilities will drive them apart. By replacing the conflict of political ideologies that dominated in the 20th century, ethnic, religious, and racial strife will continue in the 21st century as the explosive issue.8 The Need for Intercultural Communication International tensions around the globe are striking examples of the need for effective and competent intercultural communication. For example, although it was several years ago, an international incident with potentially global consequences occurred between the People’s Republic of China and the United States, stressing the need for competent intercultural communication. The incident began on April 1, 2001, when a U.S. Navy surveillance plane collided with a Chinese fighter jet in international airspace over the South China Sea. As a result of the collision, the U.S. plane—an EP-3 electronic warfare and surveillance aircraft—was damaged and nearly crashed. However, because of heroic efforts on the part of the crew, the plane landed safely at a Chinese air base. The 24member crew of the U.S. plane was detained by the Chinese military. China and the United States disagreed as to the cause of the collision, each side blaming the other. In the days and weeks following the incident, contentious negotiations took place between Chinese and U.S. officials over the release of the U.S. crew. For their release, China demanded that the United States accept responsibility and apologize for the collision. The United States refused, arguing that the collision was the fault of the Chinese pilot. In the meantime, public pressure was mounting on the president of the United States to secure the crew’s release. On April 4, the U.S. secretary of state expressed “regret” over the collision and the disappearance of the Chinese pilot. Although Chinese officials acknowledged the statement as a move in the right direction, they insisted that the United States apologize for the incident. On April 8, the vice president of the United States and the secretary of state rejected China’s demands for an apology but expressed “sorrow” for the disappearance of the Chinese pilot. They also drafted a 35 letter of sympathy to the pilot’s wife. The Chinese continued to demand an apology. On April 10, U.S. officials said that the president would be willing to offer the Chinese a letter expressing regret over the incident, including a statement admitting that the U.S. aircraft landed in Chinese territory without seeking permission. The Chinese continued to demand an apology. Finally, on April 11, the United States issued a letter to the Chinese foreign minister, asking him to “convey to the Chinese people and to the family of Pilot Wang Wei that we are very sorry for their loss.” The letter continued, “We are very sorry the entering of China’s airspace and the landing did not have verbal clearance.” To be sure, the word apology did not appear in the letter. But in their announcement of the letter to the Chinese people, Chinese officials chose to translate the double “very sorry” as “shenbiao qianyi,” which, in Chinese, means a deep expression of apology or regret not used unless one is admitting wrongdoing and accepting responsibility for it. Based on that letter and the subsequent translation, China agreed to release the U.S. crew. John Pomfret of the Washington Post Foreign Service asserted, “In the end, it was a matter of what the United States chose to say and what China chose to hear.” Apparently, such delicacies in communication are common during U.S.– China negotiations. According to Bates Gill, who was then the director of the Center for Northeast Asian Policy Studies at the Brookings Institution, U.S. negotiators often use words such as acknowledge that, when translated into Chinese, mean admit or recognize so that the Chinese can interpret such wordings as an admission of U.S. guilt.9 Indeed, national conflicts within our own borders, often ignited by racial, religious, and ethnic tensions, underscore the necessity for skillful intercultural communication. But perhaps more important, the need for competent intercultural communication is felt intrapersonally, within our own personal, social, and professional lives and relationships. Consider the situations discussed in An Intercultural Conversation box that Jim, an undergraduate student at a Midwestern university, has faced in the past few days. An Intercultural Conversation Situation #1 36 Jim has just met Bridget, an exchange student from England. They are talking in Jim’s dorm room. Jim: So, Bridget, are you enjoying your first few days in the United States? Bridget: Yes, but I am a bit paggered, you know. Got pissed last night. Jim: Oh … sorry … are you having problems with someone? Can I help? Bridget: Not a’tall, oh no, nothing traumatic—just farty things, you know. Nothing to have a dicky fit over. Jim: Ah, yeah, right. (Jim’s girlfriend, Betsy, enters the room.) Betsy: Hello. Jim: Hi, Betsy! Hey, this is Bridget. She’s from England. Betsy: Hi, Bridget. Bridget: Hello. Nice to meet you. Jim and I were just having a bit of intercourse. Won’t you join us? Betsy: You were what?! (Leaves the room.) Jim: (Running after her.) No! Betsy, that’s not true! We were just talking! I swear! Situation #2 Later that same day, Jim is trying to explain to Betsy that nothing was happening between him and Bridget when Jahan, an exchange student from India, enters the room unannounced. Jahan: Hello, Jim. Who is this with you? Jim: Oh, hi, Jahan. This is Betsy. Betsy, this is Jahan. He lives just down the hall. Betsy: Hi, Jahan. Jahan: Is this your girlfriend, Jim? Jim: Ah … yeah, she is. Jahan: Are you two going to marry? Have children? 37 Jim: Ah, well … Betsy: Uh … we really haven’t discussed that. Jahan: Oh, I see. Is your family not wealthy enough for her, Jim? What is your father’s occupation? Jim: What? Unfortunately, Jim has found himself in some rather awkward situations. The misinterpretations in Situation #1 and Situation #2 are due mostly to cultural and linguistic differences. In Bridget’s England, for example, the word paggered means tired. The colloquialism pissed means to get drunk, farty refers to something insignificant, a dicky fit is an emotional outburst, and intercourse simply means to have a conversation. Translated in terms Jim can understand, Bridget was tired because she had been drunk the night before, but she did not think it significant enough to complain. Upon meeting Betsy, she simply invited her into the conversation. The second conversation is a bit more complicated. The late Dr. Pittu Laungani, the well-known Indian-born psychologist, wrote extensively about the culture of his native India. In his writings, Laungani asserted that Indians tend to initiate social conversations with complete strangers quite easily. According to Laungani, Indians often ask, without embarrassment, very personal and delicate questions concerning one’s age, marital status, occupation, income, religious beliefs, and so on. Laungani professed that Westerners need to learn that these questions are not to be taken with any offense.10 Benefits of Intercultural Communication Although the challenges of an increasingly diverse world are great, the benefits are even greater. Communicating and establishing relationships with people from different cultures can lead to a whole host of benefits, including healthier communities; increased international, national, and local commerce; reduced conflict; and personal growth through increased tolerance (see Table 1.1). 38 Healthy Communities Joan England argues that genuine community is a condition of togetherness in which people have lowered their defenses and learned to accept and celebrate their differences. England contends that we can no longer define equality as “sameness” but, instead, must value our differences—whether they be in race, gender, ethnicity, lifestyle, or even occupation or professional discipline.11 Healthy communities are made up of individuals working collectively for the benefit of everyone, not just their own group. Through open and honest intercultural communication, people can work together to achieve goals that benefit everyone, regardless of group or culture, including the global community in the home, business, or neighborhood. Healthy communities support all community members and strive to understand, appreciate, and acknowledge each member. Increased Commerce Our ability to interact with persons from different cultures, both inside and outside our borders, has immense economic benefits. In 2015, the top 10 countries with which the United States traded—in terms of both imports and exports—were, in order, China, Canada, Mexico, Japan, Germany, South Korea, the United Kingdom, France, Taiwan, and India. In 2015, U.S. trade with these countries accounted for nearly $3 trillion (i.e., $3,000,000,000,000). Only through successful intercultural communication can such economic potentials be realized.12 Reduced Conflict Conflict is inevitable; we will never be able to erase it. We can, however, 39 through cooperative intercultural communication, reduce and manage conflict. Often, conflict stems from our inability to see another person’s point of view, particularly if that person is from a different culture. We develop blatant negative generalizations about the person, which are often incorrect and lead to mistrust. Table 1.2 summarizes some of the most common stereotypes of different racial and ethnic groups in the United States that have been documented by researchers.13 Such feelings lead to defensive behavior, which fosters conflict. If we can learn to think and act cooperatively by engaging in assertive (not aggressive) and responsive intercultural communication, we can effectively manage and reduce conflict with others. Personal Growth Through Tolerance As you communicate with people from different cultures, you learn more about them and their way of life—including their values, history, and habits—and the substance of their personality. As your relationship develops, you start to understand them better, perhaps even empathizing with them. One of the things you will learn (eventually) is that although your cultures are different, you have much in common. As humans, we all have the same basic desires and needs; we just have different ways of achieving them. As we learn that our way is not the only way, we develop a tolerance for difference. This can be accomplished only when we initiate relationships with people who are different from ourselves. We could learn far more about Japanese culture by initiating and maintaining a relationship with a Japanese student at our college or university than we could by traveling to Japan for a 2- or 3-week vacation. Moreover, although this may sound contradictory, the more we learn about others and other cultures, the more we begin to learn about ourselves. When we observe how others conduct their lives, we begin to understand how we conduct our own lives. 40 Diversity in the United States One need not travel to faraway countries to understand the need for and experience the benefits of intercultural communication. Largely because of immigration trends, cultural and ethnic diversity in the United States is a fact of life. Immigrants, in record numbers, are crossing U.S. borders. Anna Brown and Renee Stepler of the Pew Research Center report that there were over 41 million immigrants living in the United States in 2013, making up 13% of the nation’s population. This number represents a fourfold increase since 1960. At that time, just under 10 million immigrants lived in the United States, accounting for about 5% of the population. Brown and Stepler note that while the growth rate has begun to decline in recent years, the number of immigrants living in the United States is projected to double by 2065. Brown and Stepler also note that there has been a significant shift in the countries of origin among the immigrant population. According to their report, in 1960, 84% of immigrants coming to the United States were born in Europe or Canada. By 2014, European and Canadian immigrants made up only a small share of the foreign-born population, while Mexicans accounted for the largest share, about 28%. Asian immigrants made up 26% of all immigrants, other Latin Americans stood at 24%, and 8% were born in another region.14 The federal government uses the terms Hispanic and Latino interchangeably and classifies Hispanics/Latinos as an ethnic group but not a racial group. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, Hispanics are a heterogeneous group composed of Mexicans, Cubans, Puerto Ricans, persons from Central and South America, and persons of other Hispanic origin. Mexicans account for 64% of all Hispanics in the United States. In 2011, about 30 million of all Hispanics in the United States lived in just three states—California, Texas, and Florida. Just over 8% lived in the Midwest, and about 14% lived in the Northeast. But that trend is likely to change in the upcoming decades as the Hispanic population expands geographically. In addition to the rapid growth of diverse populations in the United States, another trend is emerging: An increasing number of groups are revitalizing their ethnic traditions and promoting their cultural and ethnic uniqueness through language. Language is a vital part of maintaining one’s cultural heritage, and many people are protective of their native language. A sensitive issue among many U.S. citizens is the status of the English language. Over the years, many federal lawmakers have proposed 41 legislation making English the official language of the United States. According to Brown and Stepler, the number of immigrants who are proficient in English has significantly declined since 1980. They report that immigrants who speak only English at home fell from 30% in 1980 to 16% in 2014. The number of immigrants who speak English “very well” increased from 27% to 35% over the same time period, however.15 Photo 1.1 The local government of New York City provides documents in six languages to ensure that its diverse residents receive essential information. © iStockphoto.com/tupungato In July 2002, in Brown County, Wisconsin—a county with a sizable Hmong and Hispanic community—the county board of commissioners made English the official language of its government and called for more spending to promote English fluency. The all-White Brown County board voted 17 to 8 to approve the measure. “It’s saying this is our official language. This is what we believe in, and we should encourage English,” said then–Board Supervisor John Vander Leest. On the other hand, in August 2004 the Texas border town of El Cenizo—whose population is 42 heavily Hispanic—adopted Spanish as its official language. Mayor Rafael Rodriguez said that he and most of the town’s residents speak only Spanish. According to Rodriguez, “In past administrations, the meetings were done in English and they did not explain anything.” The vote means that town business will be conducted in Spanish, which then will be translated into English for official documents to meet the requirements of Texas law. Rodriguez said the city council’s intent was not to usurp English or create divisions but to make local government more accessible to the town’s residents. “What we are looking for is that the people of the community who attend the meetings and who only speak Spanish be able to voice their opinions,” Rodriguez said.16 Although the United States prides itself on being a nation of immigrants, there is a growing sense of uncertainty, fear, and distrust among different cultural, ethnic, and linguistic groups. These feelings create anxiety that can foster separatism rather than unity. Many people are frustrated, confused, and uncertain about these linguistic and definitional issues. Only through intercultural communication can such uncertainty be reduced. Only when diverse people come together and interact can they unify rather than separate. Unity is impossible without communication. Intercultural communication is a necessity. Human Communication Communication is everywhere. Every day, everywhere, people are communicating. Even when alone, people are bombarded with communication. Communication professor Charles Larson estimated that in 2010 most U.S. citizens were exposed to more than 5,000 persuasive messages every day.17 Most people would be miserable if they were not allowed to communicate with others. Indeed, solitary confinement is perhaps the worst form of punishment inflicted on humans. Human communication—that is, the ability to symbolize and use language— separates humans from animals. Communication with others is the essence of what it means to be human. Through communication, people conduct their lives. People define themselves via their communication with others. Communication is the vehicle by which people initiate, maintain, and terminate their relationships with others. Communication is the means by which people influence and persuade others. Through communication, local, regional, national, and international conflicts are managed and resolved. 43 Ironically, however, communication—and particularly one’s style of communication—can be the source of many interpersonal problems. Marriage counselors and divorce lawyers indicate that a breakdown in communication is one of the most frequently cited reasons for relational dissolution in the United States.18 A specific kind of communication—that is, public speaking—is one of the most frequently cited fears, even more feared than death. This book is about the ubiquitous subject labeled communication. Specifically, this is a book about intercultural communication—that is, communication between people of different cultures and ethnicities. Intercultural communication occurs whenever two or more people from different cultures come together and exchange verbal and nonverbal messages. Throughout the course of this book, you will be introduced to a whole host of concepts and theories that explain the process of people of differing cultural backgrounds coming together and exchanging verbal and nonverbal messages. The Nature of Human Communication Because of its ubiquitous nature, communication is difficult to define. If you were to go to your university library and select 10 different introductory communication texts, each would probably offer a different definition of communication. Although there is no universally agreed-on definition of communication, most communication scholars agree on certain dimensions of communication that describe its nature. Communication is a process. A process is anything that is ongoing, ever changing, and continuous. A process is not static or at rest; it is always moving. Communication is always developing; it is never still or motionless. That communication is a process means that communication is dynamic. The terms process and dynamic are closely related. Part of what makes communication a process is its dynamic nature. Something that is dynamic is considered active or forceful. Because communication is a dynamic process, it is impossible to capture its essence in a written definition or graphic model. Communication is interactive and transactive because it occurs between people. Communication requires the active participation of two people sending and receiving messages at the same time—that is, as we are sending messages we are simultaneously receiving messages (transactive). That communication is symbolic is another fundamental assumption guiding most communication scholars. A symbol 44 is an arbitrarily selected and learned stimulus that represents something else. Symbols can be verbal or nonverbal. They are the vehicle by which the thoughts and ideas of one person can be communicated to another person. Messages are constructed with verbal and nonverbal symbols. Through symbols, meanings are transferred between people. Symbols (i.e., words) have no natural relationship with what they represent (they are arbitrarily selected and learned). For example, the verbal symbols “C-A-T” have no natural connection with cute, fuzzy animals that purr and like to be scratched. These particular symbols have no meaning in any languages besides English (see Figure 1.1). process Anything ongoing, ever changing, and continuous dynamic Something considered active and forceful symbol An arbitrarily selected and learned stimulus representing something else FIGURE 1.1 Different Languages Use Different Codes 45 Nonverbal symbols are arbitrary as well. Showing someone your upright middle finger may not communicate much in some cultures. Verbal and nonverbal symbols are meaningful only to people who have learned to associate them with what they represent. People can allow just about any symbols they want to represent just about anything they want. For example, you and your friends probably communicate with one another using private symbols that no one else understands. You have your own secret code. You have words, phrases, gestures, and handshakes that only you and your friends know, understand, and use. This allows you to communicate with one another in your own “foreign” language. Most communication is intentional, meaning that it is performed consciously. Intentional communication exists whenever two or more people consciously engage in interaction with some purpose. Unintentional communication may exist, however. For example, you pass a friend in the hallway of your dorm, say hello, and your friend does not respond. Perhaps your friend simply didn’t see you and was thinking about the exam he or she just failed and was not intentionally ignoring you. In this book, the type of communication that will be discussed is intentional communication. This book takes the position that intentional 46 communication, either verbal or nonverbal, is more informative than unintentional communication. Communication is dependent on the context in which it occurs. Context refers to the cultural, physical, relational, and perceptual environment in which communication occurs. In many ways, the context defines the meaning of any message. With whom and where you interact significantly alters the messages sent. That communication is ubiquitous simply means it is everywhere, done by everyone, all the time. Wherever one goes, some communication is happening. context The cultural, physical, social, and psychological environment Finally, culture shapes communication, and communication is culture bound. People from different cultures communicate differently. The verbal and nonverbal symbols we use to communicate with our friends and families are strongly influenced by our culture. Perhaps the most obvious verbal communication difference between two cultures is language. Even cultures speaking the same language, however, have different meanings for different symbols. For example, although English is the dominant language spoken in the United States and England, many words and phrases have different meanings between these two cultures. In England, to “bomb” an examination is to have performed very well. Communication, then, is the ubiquitous, dynamic, interactive process of encoding and decoding verbal and nonverbal messages within a defined cultural, physiological, relational, and perceptual context. Although many of our messages are sent intentionally, some others—perhaps our nonverbal messages—can unintentionally influence other people.19 communication The simultaneous encoding, decoding, and interpretation of verbal and nonverbal messages between people Human Communication Apprehension Although communication is difficult to define, we know that people begin to communicate at birth and continue communicating throughout their lives. We also know that many people experience fear and anxiety when communicating with others, particularly in situations such as public speaking, class presentations, a first date, or a job interview. The fear or anxiety people experience when communicating with others is called 47 communication apprehension. In the past 50 years, a substantial body of research has accumulated regarding the nature and prevalence of communication apprehension. The late Jim McCroskey, considered the father of this concept, believed that nearly everyone experiences some kind of communication apprehension sometimes, but roughly one in five adults in the United States suffer from communication apprehension every time they communicate with others. McCroskey said that experiencing communication apprehension is normal; that is, all of us experience it occasionally. McCroskey argued that there are four types of communication apprehension: traitlike, context based, audience based, and situational. Traitlike communication apprehension is an enduring general personality predisposition where an individual experiences communication apprehension most of the time across most communication situations. Of all adults in the United States, 20% experience traitlike communication apprehension. communication apprehension The fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or group of persons Context-based communication apprehension is restricted to a certain generalized context, such as public speaking, group meetings, or job interviews. Persons with context-based communication apprehension experience anxiety only in certain contexts. Audience-based communication apprehension is triggered not by the specific context but by the particular person or audience with whom one is communicating. Hence, persons with audience-based communication apprehension may experience anxiety when communicating with strangers or their superiors, for example. College students with audience-based communication apprehension may experience anxiety when communicating with professors but not when communicating with other students. Finally, situational-based communication apprehension, experienced by virtually everyone, occurs with the combination of a specific context and a specific audience. For example, students may feel anxious interacting with professors only when they are alone with the professor in the professor’s office. At other times, perhaps in the hallways or in the classroom, interacting with the professor may not be a problem.20 To repeat, virtually everyone experiences communication apprehension at some time; if you experience such anxiety, it does not mean you are abnormal or sick. 48 What follows is the Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24), a scale designed to measure your degree of communication apprehension. Take a few moments and complete the scale in SelfAssessment 1.1. Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24) Selfreport instrument designed to measure communication apprehension Self-Assessment 1.1: Personal Report of Communication Apprehension Directions: This instrument is composed of 24 statements concerning your feelings about communicating with other people. Please indicate in the space provided the degree to which each statement applies to you by marking whether you (1) strongly agree, (2) agree, (3) are undecided, (4) disagree, or (5) strongly disagree with each statement. There are no right or wrong answers. Many of the statements are similar to other statements. Do not be concerned about this. Work quickly; just record your first impressions. ______ 1. I dislike participating in group discussions. ______ 2. Generally, I am comfortable while participating in group discussions. ______ 3. I am tense and nervous while participating in group discussions. ______ 4. I like to get involved in group discussions. ______ 5. Engaging in group discussions with new people makes me tense and nervous. ______ 6. I am calm and relaxed while participating in group discussions. ______ 7. Generally, I am nervous when I have to participate in group discussions. ______ 8. Usually, I am calm and relaxed while participating in meetings. ______ 9. I am very calm and relaxed when I am called upon to express 49 an opinion at a meeting. ______ 10. I am afraid to express myself at meetings. ______ 11. Communicating at meetings usually makes me uncomfortable. ______ 12. I am very relaxed when answering questions at a meeting. ______ 13. While participating in a conversation with a new acquaintance, I feel very nervous. ______ 14. I have no fear of speaking up in conversations. ______ 15. Ordinarily, I am very tense and nervous in conversations. ______ 16. Ordinarily, I am very calm and relaxed in conversations. ______ 17. When conversing with a new acquaintance, I feel very relaxed. ______ 18. I am afraid to speak up in conversations. ______ 19. I have no fear of giving a speech. ______ 20. Certain parts of my body feel very tense and rigid while giving a speech. ______ 21. I feel relaxed while giving a speech. ______ 22. My thoughts become confused and jumbled when I am giving a speech. ______ 23. I face the prospect of giving a speech with confidence. ______ 24. While giving a speech, I get so nervous I forget facts I really know. Scoring: The PRCA-24 allows you to compute a total score and four subscores. The total score represents your degree of traitlike communication apprehension. Total scores may range from 24 to 120. McCroskey argued that any score above 72 indicates general communication apprehension. Scores above 80 indicate a very high level of communication apprehension. Scores below 59 indicate a very low level of communication apprehension. Total PRCA Score: 50 Step 1. Add what you marked for Items 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 11, 13, 15, 18, 20, 22, and 24. Step 2. Add what you marked for Items 2, 4, 6, 8, 9, 12, 14, 16, 17, 19, 21, and 23. Step 3. Subtract the score from Step 1 from 84 (i.e., 84 minus the score of Step 1). Then add the score of Step 2 to that total. The sum is your PRCA score. The subscores indicate your degree of communication apprehension across four common contexts: group discussions, meetings, interpersonal conversations, and public speaking. For these scales, a score above 18 is high, and a score above 23 is very high. Subscores for Contexts: Group Subscore: 18 + scores for Items 2, 4, and 6, minus scores for Items 1, 3, and 5. Meeting Subscore: 18 + scores for Items 8, 9, and 10, minus scores for Items 7, 10, and 11. Interpersonal Subscore: 18 + scores for Items 14, 16, and 17, minus scores for Items 13, 15, and 18. Public Speaking Subscore: 18 + scores for Items 19, 21, and 23, minus scores for Items 20, 22, and 24. SOURCE: McCroskey, J. C. (1982). Introduction to Rhetorical Communication (4th Ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. © 1982. Printed and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey. The Nature of Culture Like communication, culture is ubiquitous and has a profound effect on humans. Culture is simultaneously invisible yet pervasive. As we go about our daily lives, we are not overtly conscious of our culture’s influence on us. How often have you sat in your dorm room or classroom, for example, and consciously thought about what it means to be a U.S. citizen? As you stand in the lunch line, do you say to yourself, “I am acting like a U.S. citizen”? As you sit in your classroom, do you say to yourself, “The professor is really acting like a U.S. citizen”? Yet most of your thoughts, emotions, and behaviors are culturally driven. One need only step into a culture different from one’s own to feel the immense impact of culture. Culture has a direct influence on the physical, relational, and perceptual 51 contexts. For example, the next time you enter your communication classroom, consider how the room is arranged physically, including where you sit and where the professor teaches, the location of the chalkboard, windows, and so on. Does the professor lecture from behind a lectern? Do the students sit facing the professor? Is the chalkboard used? Next, think about your relationship with the professor and the other students in your class. Is the relationship formal or informal? Do you interact with the professor and students about topics other than class material? Would you consider the relationship personal or impersonal? Finally, think about your perceptual disposition—that is, your attitudes, motivations, and emotions about the class. Are you happy to be in the class? Do you enjoy attending? Are you nervous when the instructor asks you a question? To a great extent, the answers to these questions are contingent on your culture. The physical arrangement of classrooms, the social relationship between students and teachers, and the perceptual profiles of the students and teachers vary significantly from culture to culture. Like communication, culture is difficult to define. To be sure, more than 50 years ago, two well-known anthropologists, Alfred Kroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn, found and examined 300 definitions of culture, no two of which were the same.21 Perhaps too often, people think of culture only in terms of the fine arts, geography, or history. Small towns or rural communities are often accused of having no culture. Yet culture exists everywhere. There is as much culture in Willard, New Mexico (population 240), as there is in New York, New York (population 8,400,197). The two cultures are just different. Simply put, culture is people. Although there may not be a universally accepted definition of culture, there are a number of properties of culture that most people would agree describe its essence. In this book, culture is defined as an accumulated pattern of values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by an identifiable group of people with a common history and verbal and nonverbal symbol systems. culture An accumulated pattern of values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by an identifiable group of people with a common history and verbal and nonverbal symbol system Accumulated Pattern of Values, Beliefs, and Behaviors 52 Cultures can be defined by their value and belief systems and by the actions of their members. People who exist in the same culture generally share similar values and beliefs (see Table 1.3). In the United States, for example, individuality is highly valued. An individual’s self-interest takes precedence over group interests. U.S. citizens believe that people are unique. Moreover, U.S. citizens value personal independence. Conversely, in Japan, a collectivistic and homogeneous culture—a sense of groupness and group harmony—is valued. Most Japanese see themselves as members of a group first and as individuals second. Where U.S. citizens value independence, Japanese value interdependence. The values of a particular culture lead to a set of expectations and rules prescribing how people should behave in that culture. Although many U.S. citizens prefer to think of themselves as unique individuals, most of them behave in similar ways. Observe the students around you in your classes. Although you may prefer to think that you are very different from your peers, you are really quite similar to them. Most of your peers follow a similar behavioral pattern to your own. For example, on a day-to-day basis, most of your peers attend classes, take examinations, go to lunch, study, party, and write papers. U.S. citizens share a similar behavioral profile. Most work an average of 40 hours a week, receive some form of payment for their work, and pay some of their earnings in taxes. Most spend their money on homes and 53 cars, and almost every home in the United States has a television. Although U.S. citizens view themselves as unique individuals, most of them have similar behavioral patterns. An Identifiable Group of People With a Common History Because the members of a particular culture share similar values, beliefs, and behaviors, they are identifiable as a distinct group. In addition to their shared values, beliefs, and behaviors, the members of a particular culture share a common history. Any culture’s past inextricably binds it to the present and guides its future. At the core of any culture are traditions that are passed on to future generations. In many cultures, history is a major component of the formal and informal education systems. To learn a culture’s history is to learn that culture’s values. One way children in the United States develop their sense of independence, for example, is by learning about the Declaration of Independence, one of this country’s most sacred documents. Elementary school children in Iran learn about the historical significance of the political and religious revolution that took place in their culture in the 1970s and 1980s. Russian children learn about the arts in Russian history—for example, famous Russian composers, including Tchaikovsky, Rachmaninoff, and Stravinsky. The art of the past helps Russians remember their culture and history as they face disruptive social and political crises. Such historical lessons are the glue that binds people together. Verbal and Nonverbal Symbol Systems One of the most important elements of any culture is its communication system. The verbal and nonverbal symbols with which the members of a culture communicate are culture bound. Seeing the difference between the verbal codes of any two cultures is easy. For instance, the dominant verbal code in the United States is English, whereas the dominant verbal code in Mexico is Spanish. But although two cultures may share the same verbal code, they may have dramatically different verbal styles. Most White U.S. citizens, for example, use a direct, instrumental, personal style when speaking English. Many Native Americans/American Indians who also speak English use an indirect, impersonal style and may prefer the use of silence over words.22 54 Photo 1.2 Nonverbal communication, including body language, can communicate a great deal about one’s culture. © iStockphoto.com/iStock_Oles Nonverbal code systems vary significantly across cultures as well. Nonverbal communication includes the use of body language, gestures, facial expressions, voice, smell, personal and geographical space, time, and artifacts. Body language can communicate a great deal about one’s culture. When an adult interacts with a young child in the United States, for example, it is not uncommon for the adult to pat the child’s head. This nonverbal gesture is often seen as a form of endearment and is culturally acceptable. In Thailand, however, where the head is considered the seat of the soul, such a gesture is unacceptable. Belching during or after a meal is viewed by most U.S. citizens as rude and impolite, perhaps even disgusting. But in China, slurping and making belching noises during a meal simply mean one is enjoying the food.23 Photos 1.3a, b: Children learn the values, norms, and behaviors of their culture at an early age. 55 56 © iStockphoto.com/kali9 © iStockphoto.com/pushlama People also communicate nonverbally through smell. U.S. citizens, in particular, seem obsessed with the smell of the human body and home environment. Think of all the products you used this morning before you left for class that were designed to mask the natural scent of your body, including soap, toothpaste, mouthwash, deodorant, and cologne and/or perfume. Persons from other cultures often complain that U.S. citizens tend to smell antiseptic. Microcultural Groups Within most cultures, groups of people—or microcultures—coexist within the mainstream society. Microcultures exist within the broader rules and guidelines of the dominant cultural milieu but are distinct in some 57 way, perhaps racially or linguistically, or via their sexual orientation, age, or even occupation. In some ways, everyone is a member of some microcultural group. Microcultures often have histories that differ from the dominant cultural group. In many cases, microcultural groups are considered subordinate or treated subordinately in some way, perhaps politically or economically. microculture An identifiable group of people who share a set of values, beliefs, and behaviors and who possess a common history and a verbal and nonverbal symbol system that is similar to but systematically varies from the larger, often dominant cultural milieu In the United States, Native American/American Indian tribes might be considered microcultures. The Amish of Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, also can be considered a microcultural group. Although the Amish are subject to most of the same laws as any other group of citizens, they have unique values and communication systems that differentiate them from mainstream American life. For example, Amish children are exempt from compulsory attendance in public schools after the eighth grade. Although almost all Amish speak English, when they interact among themselves, they speak German. During church services, a form of High German is used. Hence, most Amish of Lancaster County speak three languages. The Study of Intercultural Communication Ideally, we now have an understanding of the word communication and the idea of culture. So what happens when people from different cultures come together and communicate with one another? We call that process “intercultural communication.” Compared with many other academic disciplines, the study of intercultural communication is young. The histories of other academic fields such as math, biology, philosophy, and psychology date back hundreds and, in some cases, thousands of years. But the academic discipline of intercultural communication can be traced back only a few decades—specifically, to the year 1959 and the publication of Edward T. Hall’s book The Silent Language. Hall is generally recognized as the founder of the academic discipline we call intercultural communication. Although the term intercultural had been used prior to Hall’s work, it is thought that Hall was the first to use the term intercultural communication.24 58 Hall held three university degrees (i.e., BA, MA, and PhD) in anthropology. Anthropology is the study of the origin, behavior, and physical, social, and cultural development of humans. Hall earned his doctorate in anthropology in 1942 when the United States was involved in the Second World War. During this period, traditional approaches in anthropology focused on studying a single culture at a time. So a particular anthropologist might focus his or her studies on, say, the Navajo or Hopi Indians of the American Southwest, as did Hall. Hall often referred to this as a macrolevel approach to culture. Among the many significant influences on Hall’s approach to his studies was anthropologist Franz Boas. The term cultural relativism is often attributed to him. Boas believed, as did Hall, that humans are inherently ethnocentric (i.e., believing that one’s native culture is the standard by which other cultures are observed and judged) and that our observations of other cultures are necessarily biased in favor of our native cultural background. For example, a child raised in Germany, Iran, or China is taught that his or her cultural traditions, values, and customs are the preferred and accepted standards by which one should conduct one’s life. Consequently, an individual from a particular culture cannot draw conclusions about some other culture’s traditions, values, and customs without some inherent bias. Moreover, Boas believed that any particular culture is an adaptation to and a distinctive product of a unique set of historical, social, and environmental conditions. As these conditions vary, cultures vary accordingly—and, in this sense, there is no correct culture. Following World War II, the U.S. Congress established the Foreign Service Institute (FSI). FSI is the federal government’s primary training institution for officers and support personnel of the U.S. foreign affairs community, preparing American diplomats and other professionals to advance U.S. foreign affairs interests overseas and in Washington. In the early 1950s, Hall taught at FSI and soon discovered that the traditional ways of teaching about macrolevel culture, from an anthropological perspective, were not effective in training FSI personnel how to interact with persons from different cultures. So Hall and others began to rethink how to teach about culture and soon developed a new curriculum that eventually became known as intercultural communication. In this new curriculum, scholars focused on intercultural communication— that is, how people from different cultures interact with one another— rather than on how members of a particular culture interact within their 59 culture. This new curriculum also emphasized the nonverbal elements of intercultural communication. Hall was especially interested in the study of how cultures manage the nonverbal channels of time (chronemics), space (proxemics), and body language (kinesics). One of Hall’s most fascinating insights was how invisible culture is to its own members—that is, how most people are so unaware of their own cultural ways of living. This new approach also embraced Boas’s idea of cultural relativism in that cultures should be judged only from within their specific cultural context, and cultural traditions, beliefs, and behaviors are to be evaluated on that culture’s unique set of historical, social, and environmental conditions. In 1959, Hall published The Silent Language, which sold more than 500,000 copies in its first 10 years and is considered the seminal work in the field. In the book, Hall asserted that culture is communication. By the late 1960s, we saw the first intercultural communication courses being offered at universities. In 1970, the International Communication Association established a Division of Intercultural Communication. L. S. Harms’s 1970 book, Intercultural Communication, is thought to be the first textbook on the subject. By 1975, the Speech Communication Association established the Division of Intercultural Communication, and in 1977, the International Journal of Intercultural Relations began publication. A Contextual Model of Intercultural Communication Intercultural communication occurs whenever a minimum of two persons from different cultures or microcultures come together and exchange verbal and nonverbal symbols. A central theme throughout this book is that intercultural communication is contextual. A contextual model of intercultural communication is presented in Figure 1.2. According to the model, intercultural communication occurs within and between a variety of interconnected contexts, including cultural, microcultural, environmental, perceptual, and sociorelational contexts. intercultural communication Two persons from different cultures or microcultures exchanging verbal and nonverbal messages FIGURE 1.2 A Contextual Model of Intercultural Communication 60 The term context refers to the setting, situation, circumstances, background, and overall framework within which communication occurs. For example, when you interact with your friends, you interact in some physical context, such as your dorm room. You also interact within a social context—that is, friend to friend. You also interact within a psychological context—your thoughts and emotions about your friend. The contextual model of intercultural communication attempts to identify the various contexts that define what happens when a person from Culture A communicates with a person from Culture B. As we walk through the contextual model of intercultural communication, please note that the model is both conceptually and graphically consistent. The largest, outer circle of the model represents the cultural context. All communicative exchanges between persons occur within some culture. The cultural context represents an accumulated pattern of values, beliefs, and behaviors shared by an identifiable group of people with a common history and verbal and nonverbal symbol systems. So whenever you and someone from a different culture come together and interact, you are within a cultural context. In this textbook, the cultural context is the focus of Chapter 2. The next largest circle in the model is the microcultural context (Figure 1.3). As mentioned earlier, within most cultures separate groups of people coexist. These groups, called microcultures, are in some way different from the larger cultural milieu. Sometimes the difference is via ethnicity, race, or language. Conceptually, microcultures exist within a larger culture; notice that in the model, the microculture is within the cultural context. Often, microcultures are treated differently by the members of the 61 larger culture. Some people r…
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